unit 6 poverty 1

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MAJOR SOCIAL PROBLEMS POVERTY, HOUSING, FOOD SUPPLIES, ILLITERACY, PROSTITUTION, DOWRY, CHILD LABOUR, CHILD ABUSE, DELINQUENCY, CRIME, SUBSTANCE ABUSE, HIV/AIDS, COVID-19


🌟 — POVERTY 

1. Meaning of Poverty

  • Poverty means not having enough income to meet basic needs like food, shelter, clothing, health, and education.
  • Common in rural India and developing countries.
  • Leads to poor health, family problems, and community disorganization.

Simple Definitions

  • Gillin & Gillin: Poverty = A condition where a person cannot maintain normal physical and mental efficiency due to low income or poor spending.
  • Goddard: Poverty = Not having enough things needed to live in health and strength.
  • Adam Smith: Rich or poor depends on how much a person can afford to enjoy life’s basic comforts.

🌟 2. Causes of Poverty (Easy Points)

A. Physical Factors

  • Sickness (TB, malaria), disability, accidents.
  • Poor health reduces ability to work → low income.
  • Alcohol and smoking cause wasteful spending.
  • Death of the family breadwinner → sudden poverty.

B. Psychological Factors

  • Mental illnesses (e.g., schizophrenia, autism) make working difficult.
  • Leads to low income and dependency.

C. Geographical Factors

1. Natural Calamities

  • Floods, droughts, earthquakes, famines destroy property and crops → poverty.

2. Loss of Natural Resources

  • Misuse of water, forests, minerals reduces availability → affects income.

3. Climate Problems

  • Bad weather reduces farming and industrial production → low national income.

D. Economic Factors

1. Agriculture Issues

  • Lack of technology, poor seeds, no irrigation, landlessness → low yield → poverty.

2. Unequal Distribution of Wealth

  • Some people have more, many have less → poverty continues.

3. Unemployment & Under-employment

  • Too many people, not enough jobs → low wages → poverty.

4. Extravagant Spending

  • Overspending at weddings, festivals, social functions → financial problems → poverty.

E. Social Factors

1. Type of Family

  • Large families → more expenses, fewer resources → poverty.
  • Some joint family members avoid work → dependency.

2. Customs & Traditions

  • Dowry system and expensive rituals lead to financial burden.

3. Caste System

  • Traditional jobs only.
  • No upward mobility → people stay poor.

4. Illiteracy & Ignorance

  • Poor people cannot afford education → remain unskilled → low income → poverty cycle.

5. Over-population

  • More people → more demand → lack of resources → poverty increases.

6. Religious Beliefs

  • Some donate too much money.
  • Some believe poverty is fate → no attempt to improve life.

7. Lack of Career Guidance

  • Youth choose wrong careers → unemployment → poverty.

8. Poor Health Services

  • Rural areas have fewer hospitals → untreated diseases → disability → poverty.

F .Political Factors 

i. Improper Government Organization
Poor planning and budgeting cause poverty. When the government doesn’t consider the needs of all citizens, and issues like corruption and exploitation occur, the country becomes poor.

ii. War
War destroys fertile land, wealth, and natural resources. This damage pushes countries into poverty.

✅ Final Summary 

Poverty is the inability to meet basic needs.
It is caused by physical, psychological, geographical, economic, and social,political factors.
It affects health, education, employment, and overall social development.


1. POVERTY 📉

A. Meaning

  • Poverty = Failure to maintain a minimum standard of living (food, health, education).
  • Major issue in developing countries due to low income and inequality.

B. Measurement of Poverty

  • National Income: Total income earned by people in a country.
  • Net National Product (NNP): Total monetary value of goods/services produced in and outside the country (after depreciation).
  • Gross National Product (GNP): Total value of production within a specific period.
  • Per-Capita Income:
    Income per person = National Income ÷ Population
    (Falls when population increases faster than income.)
  • Statistics (contextual):
    • 1/3 of global deaths (~18 million) are poverty-related.
    • ~270 million people were poor in India (1991 
    • estimate).


 Per-Capita Income & Global Poverty

1. Per-Capita Income

  • Meaning:
    The average income earned by a person in a country in one year.
  • Formula:
    Per-capita income = National income ÷ Population
  • Key Point:
    When population increases, per-capita income decreases.
    → Population is inversely proportional to per-capita income.

2. Poverty as a Global Problem

Even though global poverty is decreasing, it is still a serious worldwide issue.

i. Deaths due to Poverty

  • About 18 million people die each year from poverty-related causes.
  • That is around 50,000 deaths per day.
  • Majority are women and children.

ii. Child Mortality

  • Nearly 11 million children die before the age of 5 every year due to lack of food, healthcare, and sanitation.

iii. Hunger

  • About 800 million people go to sleep hungry every day.

iv. Inequality

  • The three richest people in the world own more wealth than 600 million people living in the poorest countries combined.


C. Causes of Poverty

1. Economic Factors

  • Low per-capita income.
  • Unemployment / under-employment.
  • Lack of capital and productive resources.
  • Inadequate industrial and agricultural production.

2. Social Factors

  • Caste system limits mobility.
  • Joint family system causing dependency.
  • Religious beliefs (fate, donation practices).

3. Demographic Factors

  • Overpopulation.
  • High dependency ratio (more dependents than earners).

4. Political Factors

  • Corruption.
  • Poor administration.
  • Wars and political instability.

5. Health Factors

  • Lack of guidance on health habits.
  • Poor health care services (especially in rural areas).

D. Elimination of Poverty (Interventions)

Economic & Agricultural Measures

  • Improve agriculture (HYV seeds, fertilizers, irrigation).
  • Protect natural resources (soil, water, minerals).
  • Improve marketing facilities.

Social Measures

  • Education facilities (especially rural).
  • Career guidance for youth.
  • Family welfare programs → promote small families.

Health Measures

  • Health education (nutrition, avoiding smoking/alcohol).
  • Equal distribution of health services in rural and urban areas.

Government Interventions

  • Minimum wages for workers.
  • Social security schemes (old-age pension, unemployment allowance).
  • Rehabilitation of physically handicapped.
  • Disaster relief funds.


Elimination of Poverty 

  1. Improve Agriculture
    Provide HYV seeds, irrigation, better farming, animal husbandry, poultry, land redistribution, and support small industries.

  2. Rehabilitation
    Give training and support to persons with disabilities and families of deceased workers to help them earn a livelihood.

  3. Educational Facilities
    Offer compulsory education up to secondary level, especially in rural areas, to widen opportunities for youth.

  4. Health Education
    Teach people about harmful habits (smoking, alcohol, tobacco) and provide basic health and life-skills education in schools.

  5. Family Welfare Programs
    Promote programs to prevent unwanted births and control population growth.

  6. Equal Health Services
    Increase hospitals, clinics, and health centers in rural and remote areas.

  7. Minimum Wages
    Fix minimum wages to improve workers’ living standards.

  8. Protect Natural Resources
    Prevent waste of water, land, minerals, and forests; promote conservation awareness.

  9. Social Security Schemes
    Provide pensions, unemployment allowances, disability support, and sickness insurance for all, including rural people.

  10. Better Marketing Facilities
    Improve markets and ensure fair prices for producers.

  11. Disaster Relief
    Provide timely relief funds and rebuild affected areas after natural calamities.

  12. Electrification
    Supply electricity and safe water to rural areas to improve living conditions and farming.

.


2. HOUSING 🏠

A. Definition 

Housing =
Physical structure + environment + services + facilities + equipment
needed for healthy living.

B. Importance

  • Provides shelter and protection.
  • Supports privacy, family life, and mental well-being.
  • Essential for physical, mental, and social health.

Importance of House in Social Life — 

  1. Shelter
    A house provides safe, sanitary shelter — a basic human need.

  2. Family Life
    Gives space for cooking, storing food, sleeping, and daily family activities.

  3. Protection
    Protects from weather, accidents, fire hazards, unsafe flooring, and other dangers.

  4. Community Participation
    A stable home helps families take part in community activities and receive support when needed.

  5. Economic Stability
    Housing acts as an investment, improving a family’s financial security.

  6. Health
    Good housing, clean water, and proper waste disposal help prevent diseases and promote good health.

  7. Access to Facilities
    A good location gives access to schools, shops, health centers, places of worship, and other services.



C. Causes of Poor Housing

  • Population explosion → overcrowding.
  • Industrialization → migration to cities → slums.
  • Number of houses not matching population growth.

D. Housing Standards (India)

1. Site

  • Free from nuisance (mosquitoes, stagnant water).
  • Well connected to roads.
  • Safe location.

2. Light & Ventilation

  • Enough open space.
  • Proper windows (at least 2).
  • Minimum open area ≈ 50 sq ft.

3. Rooms

  • Minimum 2 rooms.
  • Floor area:
    • At least 50 sq ft per person
    • Preferably 100 sq ft per person

4. Facilities

  • Bathing, washing area
  • Sanitary toilet
  • Waste disposal system

5. Safety

  • Strong roof, weatherproof walls.
  • Smooth and durable construction.
  • Cattle shed minimum 25 ft away.


Standards of Housing 

  1. Good Location
    House should be on high ground, clean, and away from mosquito/ fly breeding places.

  2. Open Space
    Must be built in an open, uncrowded area.

  3. Strong Flooring
    Floors should be pucca, smooth, crack-free, and waterproof.

  4. Good Walls
    Walls must be strong, smooth, and weather-resistant.

  5. Proper Roof
    Roof should reduce heat.

  6. Adequate Rooms
    At least two rooms; one should be fully enclosed.

  7. Sufficient Floor Area
    50–100 sq. ft. per person.

  8. Adequate Air Space
    Minimum 500 cu. ft. of air per person.

  9. Windows & Ventilation
    Each room should have at least 2 windows; one facing open space. Doors + windows = 2/5 of floor area.

  10. Good Lighting
    Adequate natural and artificial light.

  11. Kitchen
    Proper kitchen with enough space and lighting.

  12. Bathing & Washing
    Facilities should be available inside or attached.

  13. Safe Water Supply
    Clean, reliable drinking water.

  14. Sanitary Toilet
    Each house must have a sanitary latrine; refuse should be removed daily.

  15. Sanitary Well
    A clean well should be within 0.5 km if used.

  16. Cattle Shed Distance
    Should be at least 25 ft away.

  17. Safety Measures
    Protection from fire and other accidents.



E. Housing Problem in India

  • Severe shortage of housing units (e.g., ~18.77 million homes lacking in 1997–2002).
  • Rural areas more affected than urban areas.

F. Interventions / Housing Schemes

  • Houses for All: Build 20 lakh houses/year (urban: 65%, rural: 35%).
  • Indira Awas Yojana (IAY): Houses for rural poor, SC/ST, landless.
  • Subsidized Industrial Housing: For industrial workers (65% loan support).
  • LIG Housing Scheme (1954): Low-income groups; loans up to 80%.
  • MIG Housing Scheme: Loans from LIC, State Boards.
  • Slum Clearance Scheme (1956): Financial help for slum improvement.
  • Rental Housing Scheme (1959).
  • National Housing Policy (1994): Improve housing finance, reduce housing shortage.


National Housing Policy 

  1. Introduction (1994)
    Launched in 1994 to provide housing for all income groups⁹.

  2. Housing Agencies Involved
    State Housing Boards, National Housing Bank, HUDCO, HDFC, SBI, ICICI, and other banks provide housing loans.

  3. Government Support
    Income tax concessions were given to encourage house construction.

  4. Private Sector Involvement
    Due to limited government resources, private sector, cooperatives, and NGOs are encouraged to help solve housing shortages.

  5. Housing Targets (9th Five-Year Plan)

    • Planned construction: 109.53 lakh houses
    • Expected shortage: 78.71 lakh houses

  6. Future Concern
    Housing shortage was expected to become a major problem by 2010.



3. ILLITERACY 📝

A. Definition

  • Inability to read and write at a minimum acceptable level in any language.

B. Incidence (Contextual Data)

  • Global: ~1 billion illiterate adults (~20% of world population).
  • India (2001):
    • Overall: 65.38%
    • Male: 75.85%
    • Female: 54.16%

C. Causes of Illiteracy

  • Poverty (children work instead of schooling).
  • Social backwardness (SC/ST, poor classes).
  • Illiterate parents → low value on education.
  • Learning disabilities (~1% of children).
  • Lack of schools, long distances, child labor.


Causes of Illiteracy 

1. Poverty

  • Poor families cannot afford schooling.
  • Children are pushed into work to meet basic needs like food.
  • This keeps them from attending school.

2. Social Backwardness

  • Many people from socially disadvantaged groups (SC/ST) remain illiterate.
  • Poverty and lack of awareness about education make parents keep children at home.

3. Illiterate Family Background

  • When parents are illiterate, they may not value education.
  • Children are trained in traditional jobs instead of being sent to school.

4. Learning Disabilities

  • Issues like memory problems, low IQ, or physical disabilities affect learning.
  • Even willing children may struggle to achieve educational goals.

5. Other Barriers

  • No nearby schools.
  • Children busy with household chores (fetching water, caring for siblings).
  • School dropouts.
  • Girls restricted due to social customs.

Here are short and clear teaching points for Importance of Education and Effects of Illiteracy:

Importance of Education 

  1. Key to Development
    Education drives social and economic progress.

  2. Handles Modern Challenges
    Helps India face rapid changes in science, technology, and global competition.

  3. Essential for Democracy
    Educated citizens support effective democratic functioning.

  4. Supports Overall Growth
    Promotes personal, social, political, and cultural development.

  5. More Than Reading & Writing
    Literacy builds confidence, strength, and decision-making skills.

  6. Empowers People
    Gives skills for productive work and participation in society.

Effects of Illiteracy 

a) Keeps people economically poor and socially/politically unaware.
b) Leads to exploitation during elections and social activities.
c) Causes high population growth due to lack of awareness.
d) Results in unemployment.
e) Increases mortality rates because people don’t understand disease prevention.
f) Makes people easily cheated.
g) Encourages involvement in antisocial activities.



D. Effects of Illiteracy

1. Social/Political

  • Backwardness.
  • Low political awareness.
  • Poor participation in elections.

2. Economic

  • Unemployment.
  • Low-income jobs.
  • Continued poverty.

3. Health

  • Poor hygiene practices → high mortality.

4. Social Maladjustment

  • Vulnerable to antisocial behavior and exploitation.

E. Interventions to Reduce Illiteracy

National Policy on Education (NPE – 1986)

  • Free & compulsory education up to age 14.
  • Focus:
    • Universal enrollment & retention.
    • Improve quality of education.

Government Programs

  • DPEP: District Primary Education Programme.
  • Mid-Day Meal Scheme: Improve nutrition + school attendance.
  • Operation Blackboard: Improve school facilities.
  • National Literacy Mission: Adult education.


Interventions to Overcome Illiteracy 

1. National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986 & POA, 1992

  • Aimed to provide free and compulsory education up to 14 years.
  • Focus on:
    1. Universal enrolment & retention
    2. Improvement of education quality

2. Increased Government Funding

  • Education outlay increased from Rs. 153 crore (1st Plan) to Rs. 20,381.64 crore (9th Plan).
  • Education spending grew from 0.7% of GDP (1951-52) to 3.8% (2002).

3. Expansion of School Access

  • Primary schools within 1 km for 95% of rural population.
  • Upper primary schools within 3 km for 85%.

4. Improved Enrolment

  • Enrolment of 6–14 yrs: 87% (primary), 50% (upper primary).
  • Higher enrolment for girls, SC, and ST students.
  • Primary + upper primary schools increased from 2.23 lakh (1950-51) to 7.75 lakh (1996-97).

Major Government Schemes

1. District Primary Education Programme (DPEP), 1994

  • Promotes universalization of primary education.

2. Mid-Day Meal Programme, 1995

  • Provides cooked meals for classes I–V.
  • Improves enrolment, attendance, retention, and nutrition.

3. Operation Blackboard (1987-88)

Provides basic facilities to primary schools:

  • Two all-weather rooms
  • Two teachers (preferably one woman)
  • Teaching materials: blackboard, maps, charts, library, toys, etc.

4. Non-Formal Education Programme (1979–80)

  • For children unable to attend regular schools.

5. National Literacy Mission, 1988

  • Focus on adult education through literacy campaigns.

6. Mahila Samakhya Programme, 1989

  • Promotes women’s education and empowerment.

7. Literacy India

  • Creates awareness and supports education for underprivileged children and youth.



4. FOOD SUPPLIES 🍎

A. Importance

  • Provides energy, growth, repair.
  • Maintains health, prevents diseases.

B. Classification of Food

1. Based on Origin

  • Animal: Milk, eggs, meat, fish.
  • Vegetable: Cereals, fruits, vegetables.

2. Based on Function

  • Body-builders: Proteins.
  • Energy-givers: Carbohydrates, fats.
  • Protective foods: Vitamins, minerals.

3. Based on Nutritive Value

  • Proteins, fats, carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins.

4. Based on Geography

  • National, continental, Indian (South Indian, Punjabi, etc.)

C. Nutrients (Simple Points)

  • Proteins: Growth and rep⁸air (milk, meat, pulses).
  • Fats: Energy reserve (oils, ghee, butter).
  • Carbohydrates: Main energy source (rice, wheat, potatoes).
  • Vitamins:
    • Fat-soluble: A, D, E, K
    • Water-soluble: B-complex, C


FOOD SUPPLIES —

1. Importance of Food Supply

  • Food is a basic need for all living beings.
  • Rich people consume and waste more food; poor people struggle for basic meals.
  • Developed countries → high consumption & wastage.
  • Underdeveloped countries → low production & consumption.
  • Developing countries → good production but poor storage & distribution.
  • Lack of food can lead to crime and antisocial activities.
  • Every country must ensure adequate food for all citizens.

Importance of Food — Short Points

  1. Needed for growth and body maintenance.
  2. Provides energy for work.
  3. Supplies essential nutrients (proteins, fats, carbs, vitamins, minerals).
  4. Prevents nutritional deficiencies.
  5. Helps build immunity and prevents infections.
  6. Supports normal tissue function.
  7. Builds a healthy body.

Classification of Food — Short Points

1. Based on Origin

  • Animal sources: milk, meat, eggs.
  • Plant sources: cereals, pulses, fruits, vegetables.

2. Based on Function

  • Energy foods: rice, wheat, oil, sugar.
  • Body-building foods: milk, meat, pulses, oilseeds.
  • Protective foods: fruits, vegetables, milk.

3. Based on Nutritive Value

  • Cereals
  • Pulses
  • Vegetables
  • Fruits
  • Milk & milk products
  • Fats & oils
  • Meat & eggs
  • Sugar & jaggery
  • Spices & others

4. Based on Chemical Composition

  • Proteins
  • Fats
  • Carbohydrates
  • Vitamins
  • Minerals

5. Based on Geography

  • National food
  • Continental food
  • Indian cuisines: South Indian, North Indian, Punjabi, Bengali, Rajasthani, etc.

Sources of Nutrients — Short

  • Macronutrients: proteins, fats, carbohydrates.
  • Micronutrients: vitamins, minerals.
  • Most foods contain more than one nutrient.



Teaching Notes 

1. Proteins

  • Animal sources: milk, eggs, meat, fish, cheese, poultry.
  • Vegetable sources: pulses, cereals, beans, nuts, oil-seed cakes.
  • Egg protein = best quality.
  • In India, cereals & pulses are the main cheap protein sources.

2. Fats

  • Solid at 20°C; liquids at same temperature are oils.
  • Animal sources: ghee, butter, milk, meat, cheese, eggs, fish oil.
  • Plant sources: groundnut, mustard, sesame, coconut, dry fruits (seeds).
  • Low fat foods: cereals, pulses, nuts, vegetables.

3. Carbohydrates

  • Main energy source (4 kcal/g).
  • Types: starch, sugar, cellulose (fiber).
  • Starch foods: rice, wheat, pulses, roots (potato).
  • Sugar foods: glucose, fructose, sucrose, lactose.
  • Fiber: fruits, vegetables, cereals.

4. Vitamins

Types

  • Fat-soluble: A, D, E, K
  • Water-soluble: B-complex, C

Sources

  • Vit A: liver, eggs, butter, milk, green leafy veggies, carrot, mango, papaya.
  • Vit D: butter, eggs, milk, fish liver oil + sunlight.
  • Vit E: vegetable oils, sunflower seeds, egg yolk, butter.
  • Vit K: green leafy vegetables, cow’s milk.
  • Vit C: amla, guava, citrus fruits, green leafy vegetables.

Causes of Food Shortage (Short Notes)

A. Physical & Biological Factors

1. Climate

  • Temperature & rainfall decide sowing and harvesting.
  • Drought → no planting; late rains dry soil.
  • Too much rain / floods → crop damage, rotting after harvest.

2. Soil

  • Soil fertility affects production.
  • Tropical soils often low in nitrogen & phosphorus.
  • High-yield seeds need fertilizers, which are costly for poor farmers.
  • Many countries depend on imported fertilizers.

3. Biological Stressors

  • Diseases: viral, bacterial, fungal.
  • Insects: grasshopper, rice hopper.
  • Animals: rodents, birds, livestock destroy crops.
  • Weeds: compete for water & nutrients → lower yields.

4. Seeds & Technology

  • Traditional seeds → low yield.
  • Modern seeds → high yield, resistant, shorter growing period.
  • Technology helps reduce shortage, but poor farmers can’t afford it.
  • Food shortage can be reduced only if technology improves faster than population growth.



D. Causes of Food Shortage

1. Physical/Biological Factors

  • Climate issues: Too much/too little rain affects crops.
  • Pests & diseases: Reduce yield; damage crops and livestock.
  • Poor seed quality: Traditional seeds give low yield; modern seeds need disease resistance.

E. Interventions to Improve Food Supply

  • Use of high-yielding and disease-resistant seeds.
  • Better irrigation and water management.
  • Adequate fertilizers and soil management.
  • Advanced storage and transport.
  • Technology access for poor farmers.
  • Yield must rise faster than population growth to avoid shortages.




1. Major Food Supplies & Distribution Problems 🌾

(Pages 202–203)

A. Problems in Food Supply & Distribution

1. Urban Market Facilities & Management

  • Poor maintenance and lack of proper management.
  • Insufficient staff, low sanitation → unclean markets.
  • Lack of cold storage → spoilage of perishable foods.

2. Food Retailing Patterns

  • High/Middle income: Shop at supermarkets; spend around 80% of their income on food.
  • Low income: Purchase from small shops and street vendors.

3. Informal Food Distribution (Street Vendors)

  • Affordable food source for the poor.
  • Work illegally → fear of eviction, bribery, exploitation.
  • Lack basic facilities like stalls, storage, bank access.

4. Urban Market Problems

  • Poor lighting and unhygienic surroundings.
  • Sewage, improper waste disposal → pollution and health hazards.

5. Market Planning Issues

  • Under-utilized markets due to poor location.
  • High rent, poor display facilities.
  • Customers distrust vendors due to fear of cheating.

6. Sales Representatives Issues

  • Errors in orders or money collection → disputes and customer dissatisfaction.

7. Transportation Problems

  • Delay or damage of goods due to lack of proper transport.
  • Leads to increased complaints and food wastage.

8. Food Adulteration

  • Addition of low-quality or harmful substances.
  • Subtracting valuable components from food.

Examples: Stones, sand, artificial coloring, toxic chemicals.
Health Effects: Cancer, heart disease, kidney/liver damage, brain damage.

B. Prevention of Food Adulteration

  • Legal Measures:
    Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (1954); amended in 1964 & 1976.
  • Enforcement:
    Food inspectors collect samples and take action.

C. Elimination of Food Shortage

1. Fertilizers & HYV Seeds

  • Use of chemical fertilizers and high-yielding variety seeds.

2. Crop Protection

  • Development of pest-resistant crop varieties.
  • Use of breeding techniques and genetic engineering.

3. Adaptation and Storage

  • Correct seasonal planning.
  • Good storage to avoid losses.

4. Multiple Cropping

  • Modern seeds with short growing period → more harvests per year.

2. Prostitution 💔

(Pages 204–210)

A. Definition & Statistics

  • Definition: Sale of sexual services; considered a social problem.
  • Statistics (contextual):
    • Arrests > 1,00,000 annually.
    • 76% female, 24% male.
    • Street prostitution = 10–20% in large cities.

B. Types of Prostitution

  • Street Prostitution: Public places, roadside solicitation.
  • Escort / Out-call: Arranged through phone/agency; visits hotels/homes.
  • Sex Tourism: Travel to purchase sexual services (common in poorer nations).
  • Ritualized Prostitution – Devadasi System: Girls dedicated to temples/deities.

C. Causes of Prostitution

  • Poverty (major cause).
  • Broken homes and lack of family support.
  • Mental illness or intellectual disabilities.
  • Lack of education and job skills.
  • Widows and divorcees facing hardship.
  • Indebtedness (e.g., chukki system).
  • Family background in prostitution.
  • False promises of marriage.

D. Legal Aspects

  • SITA (1956): Immoral Traffic (Suppression) Act.
    Prohibits:
    • Soliciting in public
    • Living on earnings of prostitution
    • Procuring women
    • Running brothels in public areas

: Legal Aspects of Prostitution in India

Prostitution in India has a long legal history. The laws mainly aim at preventing exploitation, protecting women and children, and controlling immoral trafficking, rather than punishing adult women engaged in sex work.

I. Early Laws for Prevention of Prostitution

Several acts were introduced before independence to prevent exploitation of girls and women:

  1. Prevention of Prostitution Act, 1923
    – One of the earliest attempts to control prostitution-related offences.

  2. UP Naik Girls Protection Act, 1927
    – Aimed at protecting young girls from being forced into prostitution.

  3. Bombay Devadasi Protection Act, 1934
    – Prohibited dedication of girls as Devadasis in temples, which later pushed many into prostitution.

  4. Prevention of Dedication Act, 1934
    – Similar aim: preventing forced dedication of girls to temples.

  5. Madras Devadasi Act, 1947
    – Made the Devadasi system illegal in the Madras Presidency.

II. The Immoral Traffic (Suppression) Act – SITA (1956)

Became effective across India in May 1958.

This is the main law dealing with prostitution-related activities.
The law focuses on punishing activities around prostitution, not prostitution itself.

Key Features

  • Prostitution itself is not illegal, but activities supporting it are controlled.
  • Soliciting (asking for customers) in public places is illegal.
  • A sex worker cannot practice within 200 yards of a public place.
  • The law mainly tries to stop exploitation and trafficking.

III. Offences Related to Prostitution Under Indian Laws

The following activities are punishable:

  • Living on the earnings of a prostitute
  • Soliciting customers in public
  • Procuring or recruiting girls for prostitution
  • Importing girls for prostitution
  • Knowingly allowing premises for prostitution
  • Unlawful detention for prostitution
  • Managing or keeping a brothel
  • Allowing buildings/rooms to be used as a brothel

IV. Use of Indian Penal Code (IPC)

The IPC predates SITA and is still used to charge sex workers with vague offences such as:

  • “Public indecency”
  • “Public nuisance”

These terms are not clearly defined, which sometimes leads to misuse.

V. Amendment: The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act – PITA

SITA was later amended and renamed as:

PITA – Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act

  • The focus shifted more towards prevention of trafficking and exploitation.
  • Greater emphasis on rescue, rehabilitation, and protection of children.

VI. Legal Status of Sex Work in India

  • Sex work is neither fully legal nor fully illegal.
  • A sex worker may work privately, but:
    • Cannot solicit clients publicly
    • Cannot work within 200 yards of a public area

Rights and Limitations

  • Sex workers do not have labour protections such as:

    • Minimum wage
    • Work safety laws
    • Compensation for injury

  • They do have the right to rescue and rehabilitation if they choose.

  • They also possess all fundamental rights like any Indian citizen.

In practice, however, many rights are not effectively implemented.

VII. Summary

  • Indian laws aim to prevent trafficking, protect minors, and stop public solicitation, not to punish adult consensual sex work.
  • The legal system remains ambiguous, allowing prostitution but heavily restricting related activities.
  • Reform discussions continue to focus on worker rights, safety, and reducing exploitation.



E. Prevention & Control

1. Education

  • Sex education in schools/colleges.
  • Awareness on dangers of exploitation.

2. Social Change

  • Reject harmful customs (dowry, devadasi practice).

3. Employment & Security

  • Better job opportunities for vulnerable women.
  • Social security support.

4. Rehabilitation

  • Provide shelter, counselling, medical assistance.

5. Public Awareness

  • Encourage society to reject exploitation.
  • Support enforcement of laws.

 PROSTITUTION 


1. Definition

Prostitution is the sale of sexual services for money or other benefits.
Key definitions:

  • Elliot & Merrill: Illicit sexual union on a repeated, emotionally indifferent basis.
  • Geoffrey: Habitual or occasional sexual activity for monetary gain with emotional indifference.
  • Often referred to as “the world’s oldest profession.”

2. Statistics (General Trends)

  • Hard to measure due to hidden nature.
  • Surveys show majority of agents involved are women.
  • Arrest trends: approx. 70% women, 20% men, 10% customers.
  • Street-based workers form a small percentage but face higher risk.

3. Types of Prostitution

  1. Street Prostitution – soliciting at streets/ public places; high vulnerability.
  2. Escort / Out-call / In-call Services – arranged through agencies; appointments in homes/hotels.
  3. Sex Tourism – travel to other countries mainly for commercial sex.
  4. Ritualized Prostitution (Devadasi System) – girls dedicated to temples; linked historically to caste practices and exploitation.

4. Causes of Prostitution

Major sociological causes:

  • Poverty (primary cause)
  • Broken homes / neglect
  • Mental illness or vulnerability
  • Lack of education
  • Widowhood / divorce
  • Desire for luxurious lifestyle
  • Family background in prostitution
  • Indebtedness (e.g., “chukui system”)
  • Peer influence
  • Religious practices (Devadasi tradition)

5. Legal Aspects (India)

Important laws:

  • 1923 – Prevention of Prostitution Act
  • 1934 – Bombay Devadasi Act
  • 1947 – Madras Devadasi Act
  • 1956 – Immoral Traffic (Suppression) Act – SITA
  • Later amended as PITA (Prevention).

Key points:

  • Sex work itself is not illegal, but public solicitation, brothels, and living on earnings of another's prostitution are illegal.
  • Workers lack labour rights like minimum wage and protection.

6. Prevention & Control Measures

  1. Sex Education – awareness on exploitation, safety, and rights.
  2. Changing harmful customs – ending Devadasi system, supporting widow remarriage, reducing dowry practices.
  3. Employment Opportunities – better livelihood for vulnerable women.
  4. Social Education & Awareness – campaigns against exploitation; legal awareness.
  5. Law Enforcement – proper implementation of existing laws.

7. Rehabilitation

  • Provide safe shelter, education, and vocational training.
  • Help reintegrate women into society without stigma.
  • Health services, counseling, and support for children.
  • Social acceptance is essential for successful rehabilitation.

!


3. Dowry System 🎁

(Pages 210–211)

A. Definition

  • Money/property given by bride’s family to groom’s family at marriage.

B. Legal Aspects

  • Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961
  • Amendments in 1984 & 1986 → stricter penalties.

C. Disadvantages of Dowry

  • Harassment, emotional/physical abuse of bride.
  • Dowry deaths (burning, violence).
  • Female foeticide/infanticide.
  • Degradation of women’s dignity.
  • Increase in divorces.
  • Girls remain unmarried if parents can't afford dowry.
  • Family disputes & lack of peace.
  • Unhappy marriages due to unmet demands.

 DOWRY SYSTEM 

1. Introduction

  • Dowry is one of the major social evils in India.
  • It is the commercial aspect of marriage, where the bride’s family gives money/property to the groom’s side.
  • Though it began as a gift to the bride in ancient times, it has now become a source of exploitation and abuse.

2. Definition

  • Dowry: Payment in cash or kind by the bride’s family to the groom’s family at or after marriage.
  • Also called Kanyadan (“Kanya” = daughter, “Dana” = gift).
  • Given originally for the bride’s welfare, but later became a demand.

3. Disadvantages / Demerits of Dowry

1. Harassment

  • Bride may be pressured for more money even after marriage.
  • Leads to cruelty and abuse.

2. Dowry deaths

  • Extreme harassment can lead to severe harm or unsafe situations for women.
  • Many cases are reported as accidents or ignored.

3. Female Foeticide

  • Families avoid having girl children due to future dowry burden.

4. Degradation of Women

  • Parents may save money for dowry instead of a girl’s education and empowerment.

5. Increased Divorce

  • Marriage may break if dowry demands are not met.

6. Unmarried Girls

  • Girls may remain unmarried if parents cannot afford dowry.

7. Lack of Family Peace

  • Continuous demands cause fights and breakdown of relationships.

8. Unpleasant / Forced Marriages

  • Girls may be forced to marry older, ill, or unsuitable men because they demand less dowry.

4. Legal Aspects

Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961

  • Dowry is legally banned in India.
  • Amendments: 1984 and 1986 strengthened the law.

Key legal points

  • Dowry includes any money/property given before, during, or after marriage.
  • Punishment:
    • Minimum 5 years imprisonment + fine equal to the dowry amount.
    • Asking/demanding dowry: 6 months imprisonment + fine.

Challenges

  • Despite strict laws, dowry still continues.
  • Convictions are rare due to:
    • Poor reporting
    • Lack of evidence
    • Social pressure
    • Legal loopholes
    • Bias in the justice system

5. Conclusion

  • Dowry is a deep-rooted social evil affecting women’s dignity, safety, and equality.
  • Laws exist, but social awareness, education, empowerment of women, and changing attitudes are essential for complete eradication.



D. Interventions (Applied Sociology)

1. Rehabilitation

  • Support shelters for women neglected due to dowry issues.

2. Social Education

  • Awareness on legal consequences.
  • Promote dowry-free marriages.

4. Child Labour 🚧

(Pages 211–215)

A. Definition

  • Employment of children in work harmful to health, development, or education.
  • ILO: Work by children ≤14 years that is unsafe, long, or prevents schooling.

B. Magnitude (Contextual)

  • India has the highest number of child labourers.
  • ~5.9 million children (5–14 yrs) were child workers (1991).

C. Forms of Child Labour

Rural Areas

  • Agriculture, crop cultivation.
  • Cattle rearing.
  • Non-domestic manual labour.

Urban Areas

  • Street vending, hawking.
  • Shoe shining, helpers in shops.
  • Waste picking.
  • Domestic servants.
  • Carpet weaving, matchbox/fireworks industry.
  • Glass, brass, and pottery workshops.

D. Factors Contributing to Child Labour

  • Familial: Poverty, large families, death of parents, indebtedness.
  • Child Factors: School failure, poor academic performance.
  • Social Factors: Caste system, discrimination.

E. Hazards of Child Labour

1. Physical

  • Malnutrition, infections, accidents.
  • Work in unsafe, unsanitary conditions.

2. Psychological

  • Stress, anxiety, emotional trauma.
  • Lack of recreation/play → developmental issues.

3. Social

  • Risk of exploitation, substance abuse.
  • May involve activities linked to delinquency.

F. Prevention & Control of Child Labour

1. Legislation

  • National Child Labour Project (NCLP) – major government program.

2. Protection & Welfare

  • Employers must ensure safe conditions, clean environment, basic facilities.
  • Regular medical check-ups.
  • Access to education and recreational facilities.

3. Safety Measures

  • Protect children from exploitation and substance abuse.
  • Teach moral values and healthy habits.

4. National Measures

  • Compulsory education up to 14 years.
  • Public awareness campaigns.
  • Population control programs to reduce pressure on families.


Here are SHORT NOTES + TEACHING NOTES for both Dowry System and Child Labour — concise, clean, and exam-ready.

✅ DOWRY SYSTEM – SHORT NOTES

Meaning

  • Dowry = Money/property given by bride’s family to groom’s family at marriage (“Kanyadan”).
  • Originally meant for bride’s security → now a major social evil.

Causes

  • Social custom and prestige
  • Greed for money/property
  • Patriarchal mindset
  • Poverty and gender discrimination

Disadvantages / Ill-effects

  1. Harassment of bride – demands continue after marriage.
  2. Dowry deaths – violence disguised as “accidents.”
  3. Female foeticide – fear of future dowry.
  4. Degradation of women – less focus on women’s education.
  5. Divorces – due to unmet dowry demands.
  6. Remaining unmarried – poor families cannot afford dowry.
  7. Family conflicts – loss of peace.
  8. Forced/Unpleasant marriages – girls married to unfit partners due to low dowry.

Legal Measures

  • Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961
    • Taking/demanding dowry is a crime.
    • Punishment: Minimum 5 years imprisonment + fine equal to dowry value.
  • Amendments: 1984, 1986 strengthened anti-dowry laws.
  • Despite laws → enforcement is weak.

📘 TEACHING NOTES: DOWRY SYSTEM

Introduction

  • Dowry: a deep-rooted custom turned harmful social problem.
  • Common in marriages across India.

Key Points to Teach

  • Meaning and origin (Vedic period, Kanyadan).
  • How a ritual became a commercial transaction.
  • Social effects on women, families, and society.
  • Link with other issues:
    • Domestic violence
    • Female foeticide
    • Gender inequality
  • Government laws.
  • Role of community, NGOs, and education.

Conclusion

  • Strict law enforcement + social awareness is essential to end the dowry system.

✅ CHILD LABOUR – SHORT NOTES

Meaning

Employment of children in work that harms their health, education, development, and safety.

Definitions

  • Kulshrestha: Work dangerous to health and denies development.
  • ILO (1973):
    • Hazardous work < 14 years
    • Any work < 12 years
    • Even part-time “light work” prohibited.

Magnitude

  • 100–200 million child labourers worldwide.
  • India: largest child labour force.
  • Mostly in agriculture (rural) + industries (urban).
  • Examples: weaving, bidi-making, match factories (e.g., Sivakasi), construction.

Forms of Child Labour

  • Agriculture, household work
  • Shops, hotels, restaurants
  • Factories: match, fireworks, carpet, glass
  • Rag picking, street vending, workshops
  • Domestic servants

Causes

  1. Familial factors – poverty, death of parents, large families, debt, alcoholism.
  2. Child factors – poor academic performance, desire for money, repeated failures.
  3. Social factors – illiteracy, lack of schools, caste system, cheap labour demand, migration.

Hazards / Ill Effects

  • Physical: injuries, malnutrition, infections, growth retardation.
  • Psychological: lack of love, stress, emotional problems.
  • Social: addiction, crime, exploitation, prostitution.
  • Educational: no schooling → poor future opportunities.

Prevention and Control

  1. Create awareness in employers/communities.
  2. Improve workplace facilities & health care.
  3. Provide free education, night schools.
  4. Recreational facilities & nutrition support.
  5. Protect children from abuse, addiction.
  6. Laws enforcement.
  7. National Child Labour Policy (1987): special schools, rehabilitation centers.
  8. Socio-economic improvement of families.

Legal Measures

  1. Article 23 (1954) – prohibits bonded labour.
  2. Article 24 (1954) – prohibits child labour <14 years in hazardous work.
  3. Bonded Labour System Act (1976) – frees bonded labourers.
  4. Child Labour (Prohibition & Regulation) Act, 1986 – regulates working conditions.
  5. Immoral Traffic Prevention Act (1956) – 7 years–life imprisonment for child trafficking.
  6. Juvenile Justice Act (1986) – protects children in conflict situations.

NCLP (1987)

  • Special schools
  • Education, nutrition, health care
  • Rehabilitation for child labourers

 CHILD LABOUR

Introduction

  • Child = nation’s future.
  • Child labour = major social evil affecting millions.⁰

Key Teaching Points

  • Meaning and definitions
  • Types/forms of child labour
  • Factors causing child labour
  • Effects on child health and society
  • Laws preventing child labour
  • Government programmes (NCLP)
  • (National Child Labour Project)
  • Role of schools, teachers, community, NGOs
  • Importance of education in prevention

Conclusion

  • Child labour can end only through laws + education + social awareness + poverty reduction.



 216–231)

1. Child Abuse 👶 (pp. 216–218)

Definition

  • Child Abuse: Any physical, emotional, sexual maltreatment or neglect of a child below the legally defined age.
    • Can be acts of commission (abuse) or acts of omission (neglect).
  • Child Neglect: Failure to provide basic needs such as food, clothing, shelter, education, and medical care.

Conditions & Forms of Child Abuse

  • Sexual Abuse: Using a child for sexual gratification (e.g., inappropriate touching, exposing, coercing).
  • Physical Abuse: Excessive punishment or force causing injuries like bruises, burns, fractures.
  • Emotional Abuse/Neglect: Denying emotional support, affection, and security.
  • Munchhausen by Proxy Syndrome: Caregiver intentionally induces or fabricates illness in a child for attention.

Predisposing Factors

  • Abused Childhood: Many abusers were previously abused.
  • Substance Abuse: Alcohol or drugs are involved in ~50% of abuse cases.
  • Family Stress: Poor support, unstable homes.
  • Social Factors: Decline in moral values, violent media.
  • Child-related Factors: Disabilities, delayed development, chronic illness.
  • Trigger Events: Job loss, financial crisis, conflict.

Prevention & Treatment

  • Early Identification: Detect warning signs early.
  • Education: Teach children and parents how to recognize and report abuse.
  • Law Enforcement: Police and child protection agencies should intervene; abusers must be prosecuted.
  • Rehabilitation: Counseling, therapy, long-term support for victims and families.


 CHILD ABUSE

1. Introduction

  • Children are considered gifts and must be treated with care.
  • Unfortunately, some children face abuse and neglect.
  • Before the 19th century, children had very few legal protections.
  • Child abuse is a complex social problem involving physical, emotional, sexual harm or neglect.

2. Definition

Child Abuse:
A variety of abnormal, harmful behaviors directed against children, causing physical, emotional, or psychological injury.

  • Abuser = Perpetrator
  • Child abuse includes neglect, physical, emotional, and sexual abuse.

3. Forms of Child Abuse

A. Child Sexual Abuse

  • Any activity using a child for sexual gratification.
  • Illegal and strictly punishable.
  • Includes:
    • Touching private parts with sexual intention
    • Fondling, prolonged kissing or inappropriate cuddling
    • Showing sexual materials to children
    • Taking sexual photos/videos of children
    • Forcing or attempting to involve children in sexual acts
    • Seducing a minor
  • Children in day-care, left with strangers, or unsupervised are more vulnerable.

B. Pedophilia

  • A psychiatric disorder where an adult has sexual interest in children.
  • Collecting sexual images of children, or seeking contact with children for sexual pleasure.
  • Will lead to severe legal consequences if acted upon.

C. Physical Abuse

  • Intentional physical harm to a child.
  • Can include:
    • Hitting, beating, shaking, burning
    • Using objects like belts, sticks, paddles
    • Throwing a child or causing injury
  • Even marks lasting a few minutes can count as abuse.
  • Small children can be seriously harmed by even minor violence.

D. Child Neglect

  • Failure to provide child’s basic needs:
    • Food
    • Clothing
    • Shelter
    • Medical care
    • Safety
    • Emotional support
  • Leads to long-term developmental and health problems.
  • Continued neglect can result in legal action or removal of child to foster care.

E. Emotional Neglect

  • Lack of parental attention, love, and emotional care.
  • Effects on children:
    • Rebelliousness
    • Detachment from parents
    • Poor bonding
    • Poor social skills
    • Over-attachment to strangers
  • Severe cases may lead to personality or mental disorders.

F. Failure to Thrive

  • Child does not grow to expected physical or developmental potential.
  • Causes:
    • Medical conditions
    • Lack of food (intentional or unintentional)
    • Emotional deprivation
  • Doctors check growth charts for diagnosis.
  • If no medical reason is found, abuse/neglect is suspected.

G. Munchausen by Proxy Syndrome

  • A serious psychiatric disorder in the caregiver.
  • Parent intentionally makes the child sick to get attention from doctors/hospitals.
  • Child undergoes unnecessary tests and treatments.
  • Hard to detect; often suspected by relatives or teachers.

4. Predisposing Factors to Child Abuse

  1. Abused Childhood

    • Adults who were abused as children may repeat abusive behavior.

  2. Substance Abuse

    • Alcohol/drug use by parents contributes to about half of child abuse cases.

  3. Family Stress

    • Breakdown of family systems increases vulnerability.

  4. Social Forces

    • Decline in moral values
    • Increase in violence in media

  5. Child Factors

    • Infants who cry excessively
    • Children with disabilities or chronic diseases
    • Very fussy babies

  6. Trigger Events

    • Situations causing anger or frustration in parents (e.g., crying, toilet training difficulties).

5. Signs of Child Sexual Abuse

  • Sudden behavior changes
  • Bed-wetting
  • Nightmares
  • Depression
  • Fear of certain people
  • Complaints about genital discomfort
  • Poor performance in school

Parents should consult doctors or trained professionals if such signs appear.

6. Prevention of Child Abuse

A. Awareness

  • Educate children to recognize inappropriate touch or behavior.
  • Teach children to say NO and to report to trusted adults.

B. Early Detection

  • Parents and teachers must watch for signs of abuse or neglect.
  • Quick action prevents long-term harm.

C. Reporting

  • Report suspected abuse to:
    • Police
    • Child protection services
    • School authorities

D. Support for Families

  • Counseling for parents with anger, stress, or violent tendencies.
  • Parenting classes help improve parent–child bonding.

E. Legal Protection

  • Strict laws punish child abusers.
  • Broad definitions allow police to act quickly.

7. Role of Society

  • Everyone must protect children.
  • If abuse is witnessed, immediate action should be taken.
  • Early intervention prevents lifelong harm.

8. Summary

  • Child abuse is a preventable social and psychological problem.
  • It includes sexual abuse, physical abuse, neglect, emotional neglect, failure to thrive, and Munchausen by proxy.
  • Prevention requires awareness, reporting, counseling, and strong family support systems.



2. Crime 🔪 (pp. 221–228)

Definition

  • A crime is an act forbidden by law and punishable by the state.
  • It is a major form of social disorganization.

Factors Contributing to Crime

Physical Factors

  • Climate, population density, economic conditions, sex drives.

Physiological Factors

  • Body type, temperament, hormonal or glandular disorders.

Hereditary Factors

  • Family history of alcoholism, mental illness, prostitution, criminality.

Social Factors

  • Weak social control, poor moral values.
  • Advances in technology aiding criminals.
  • Complex laws; harassment by authorities.
  • Political influence, corruption.
  • Lack of education.

Economic Factors

  • Poverty, unemployment, economic frustration.

Industrialization & Urbanization

  • Individualism, broken family ties, lack of social control.
  • More opportunities for crime in big cities.

Family Factors

  • Broken homes, poor parent-child relationship, lack of supervision.

Psychological Factors

  • Personality disorders, emotional instability, anxiety, guilt.

Common Forms of Crime

  • Robbery, murder, arson, stealing, smuggling, looting, black-marketing.

White-Collar Crime

  • Definition: Crime by persons of high social status in professional settings.
  • Examples: Corruption, tax evasion, fraud, embezzlement.
  • Characteristics: Hidden, difficult to detect, victim often unaware.

Prevention and Control

  • Punishment: Imprisonment, parole, probation, reformatory and borstal schools.
  • Social Reform: Shift from punishment to reformation.
  • Rehabilitation: Education, vocational training, counseling to reintegrate offenders.

TEACHING NOTES: CRIME 

1. Introduction

  • Crime = Any act against the law and harmful to society.
  • Criminal = Person who commits a crime.
  • Common crimes: murder, robbery, rape, violence.
  • Cities have higher crime rates.
  • Terrorism = most dangerous modern crime.
  • No one is born a criminal; situations and environments lead to criminal behavior.

2. Definitions

  • C. Darrow: “Crime is an act forbidden by law and punishable.”
  • Barnes: Crime = antisocial behavior violating public sentiments.
  • Gerfellow: Actions against accepted ideas of pity and truth.

3. Factors Contributing to Crime

A. Physical Factors

  • Climate, seasons, culture, economic condition.
  • Poor living conditions may push people into crimes.

B. Physiological Factors

  • Body features linked to criminal tendencies (Lombroso theory).
  • Hormonal/endocrine problems affect temperament and behavior.

C. Hereditary Factors

  • Family history of alcoholism,9 addiction, mental disorders.
  • Certain traits may increase risk of criminal behavior.

D. Social Factors

  1. Weak social control – moral values declining.
  2. Advancement in technology – easy escape, communication for criminals.
  3. Harassment in reporting – fear and complexity in police procedures.
  4. Political pressure – criminals escape punishment, political involvement.
  5. Education misuse – learning technology for destructive purposes, lack of moral education.
  6. Mass media – movies/TV showing violence; youths imitate.
  7. Religion misuse – conflicts leading to violence, murder, arson.
  8. Alcohol & drugs – loss of self-control → crime increases.
  9. Superstitions – human sacrifice, harmful rituals.
  10. Absence of widow remarriage – social problems, exploitation.
  11. Marriage & dowry – harassment, violence, forced marriages.
  12. Misguiding children – using children for theft, smuggling.
  13. Population density – overcrowding, lack of supervision.
  14. Disorganized community – no social or family support.
  15. Friendship influence – bad company → drugs, theft, delinquency.

E. Economic Factors

  1. Poverty – hunger and need push people to theft, robbery.
  2. Unemployment – jobless youth join gangs or commit crimes.

F. Familial Factors

  • Alcoholic parents
  • Lack of discipline
  • Poor parent–child relationship
  • Second-born and middle children more prone (as per surveys)

G. Psychological Factors

  • Mental disorders, frustration, conflicts, guilt, inferiority complex.
  • Emotional needs sometimes push individuals toward crimes.

4. Common Crimes

  1. Robbery
  2. Murder
  3. Looting
  4. Riots
  5. Arson (burning)
  6. Sex crimes
  7. Adultery
  8. Abortion (illegal)
  9. Prostitution
  10. Juvenile delinquency
  11. Gambling
  12. Pickpocketing
  13. Theft
  14. Corruption
  15. Black-marketing
  16. Smuggling
  17. Tax evasion
  18. White-collar crimes
  19. Racketeering
  20. Terrorism

5. Prevention & Control of Crime

1. Imprisonment

  • Jail reforms criminals with education, library, counseling, etc.

2. Probation

  • Minor/juvenile offenders kept under supervision instead of jail.
  • Probation officer helps in reforming them.

3. Parole

  • Temporary release after a short imprisonment.
  • Criminal remains under parole officer’s supervision.

4. Reformatory Homes

  • For criminals influenced by circumstances.
  • Give education, discipline, citizenship values.

5. Borstal Schools

  • For ages 16–21.
  • Provide education + skill training to reform youth offenders.

6. White-Collar Crime

Definition (Edwin Sutherland)

“Crime committed by people of high social status during their occupation.”

Examples

  • Corruption
  • Embezzlement
  • Tax fraud
  • Misuse of office
  • Copyright violations
  • False advertising

Special Features

  1. Victims often unaware.
  2. Criminals don’t see themselves as criminals.
  3. Hard to detect and prosecute.
  4. Seen as less dangerous (but very harmful).
  5. Usually punished lightly.
  6. Common in upper classes.
  7. Motive = financial gain.

Short Summary

  • Crime is an act against law caused by physical, social, economic, psychological, and family factors.
  • Modern society faces issues like terrorism, corruption, and youth crime.
  • Prevention must include imprisonment, probation, parole, reformatory homes, and social reform.
  • White-collar crime is done by high-status people and is difficult to detect.




3. Juvenile Delinquency 🚨 (pp. 228–230)

Definition

  • Crime committed by a child or adolescent (usually below 16 or 18 years depending on law).

Causes of Juvenile Delinquency

Physical Causes

  • Heredity from criminal parents.
  • Disabilities/illness leading to neglect.
  • Excessive physical strength → bullying.
  • Early or unsupervised sexual impulses.

Social Causes

  • Broken homes, lack of discipline.
  • Parental criminal behavior → imitation.
  • Urbanization → less parental supervision.
  • Lack of education & moral training.

Economic Causes

  • Poverty, unemployment pushing children for survival crimes.

Geographical Causes

  • Overcrowding, slums, poor learning environment.

Psychological Causes

  • Neglected children may develop mistrust, aggression, antisocial tendencies.

Prevention & Control

  • Probation: Guidance by a probation officer.
  • Certified Schools: For ages 15–18; provide vocational training.
  • Auxiliary Homes: Linked with certified schools.
  • Foster Homes: For children below 10 years.
  • Borstal Schools: For adolescents aged 16–21.

.

 JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

1. Meaning

  • Juvenile delinquency = law-breaking or antisocial behaviour by children/youth.
  • A juvenile delinquent is a child who acts against the norms and values of society.
  • Age limit:
    • 7–18 years → considered juvenile delinquents if they break the law.
    • Below 7 years → not responsible (cannot judge right/wrong).
    • Above 18 years → adults; their acts are treated as crimes.

2. Definitions

  • Robinson: Any behaviour a community sees as harmful to its interest, even if not taken to court.
  • Sethna: Wrongdoing by a child below the legally specified age.
  • Cyril & Burt: A child becomes delinquent when antisocial behaviour is serious enough to need official action.
  • Newmeyer: A delinquent is a minor guilty of an antisocial act that breaks the law.

3. Causes of Juvenile Delinquency

A. Physical Causes

  1. Heredity – If parents are delinquents, children may inherit certain tendencies.
  2. Physical Disabilities – Lack of acceptance and parental neglect may push disabled children into antisocial behaviour.
  3. Excessive Physical Strength – Strong, impulsive children may express uncontrolled aggressive behaviours.
  4. Over-sexuality – Early sexual urge leads to inappropriate behaviour due to lack of maturity.

B. Social Causes

  1. Broken Homes – Lack of parental care, unstable home environment, strict or absent discipline.
  2. Parents' Attitude – Children imitate parents' behaviour; negative home atmosphere leads to misconduct.
  3. Urbanization – Busy parents, lack of supervision, loneliness, bad peer groups.
  4. Criminal Family Background – Children copy siblings/relatives involved in crime.
  5. Lack of Education – Poor school environment, unapproachable teachers, punishment, school failure, bad gangs.
  6. Lack of Moral/Religious Education – No moral guidance leads to poor value system.

C. Economic Causes

  1. Poverty – Lack of basic needs forces children towards theft or truancy.
  2. Unemployment of Parents – Unmet desires lead to frustration and misconduct.
  3. Child Labour & Abuse – Severe exploitation, neglect, and suffering push children toward delinquency.

D. Geographical Causes

  1. Overcrowding & Slums – Children learn theft, robbery, and undisciplined behaviour from surroundings.
  2. Isolated Areas – Poor socialization, loneliness, and frustration → antisocial attitudes.

E. Psychological Causes

  • Neglect, broken homes, loss of parents → mistrust, emotional problems, aggression, impulsive behaviour → antisocial acts.

4. Prevention & Control of Juvenile Delinquency

1. Probation

  • Juvenile stays at home under supervision of a probation officer.
  • Officer guides, advises, and helps the child to adjust socially.

2. Certified Schools (Fit Persons Institutions)

  • Below 12–13 yrs: Primary education.
  • 13–15 yrs: Technical education.
  • 15–17 yrs: Industrial training.
  • Stay: 2–3 years.
  • Afterwards → sent to probation officer.

3. Auxiliary Homes

  • Work along with certified schools.
  • Children are sent here after social worker's evaluation.

4. Foster Homes

  • For children below 10 years.
  • Court approval needed.
  • Run by government-aided agencies.

5. Uncared Children Institutions

  • For children neglected by parents/guardians.
  • Run by private agencies across the country.

6. Borstal Institutions

  • For ages 15–21 years.
  • First stage correction → then reformatory institutions.
  • May have open or high-security environment.

7. Reformatory Institutions

  • Focus: personality development, education, vocational training, medical aid.
  • Children under 15 years may be kept for 3–7 years for rehabilitation.

5. Short Summary (For Fast Revision)

  • Juvenile delinquency = law-breaking by 7–18-year-olds.
  • Causes: physical, social, economic, geographical & psychological.
  • Prevention through: probation, certified schools, foster homes, Borstal homes, reformatory institutions.
  • Home environment, education, and early guidance are key to preventing delinquency.



4. Substance Abuse 💊 (p. 231)

Definition

  • Use of drugs in ways inconsistent with social or medical norms, causing physical, psychological, or social harm.

Nature & Effects

  • Drug Addiction: State where a substance takes control of the body, altering functions.
  • Chronic Users: Experience long-term physical and emotional changes.
  • Social Impact:
    • Family conflict
    • Ill health
    • Poverty
    • Loss of employment
    • Disruption of community life
  • Alcoholism: Considered the most widespread form of substance abuse.



 - Substance Abuse

📘 Causes of Substance Abuse (p. 232)

The causes are divided into three main categories:

 * Biological Causes:

   * Family history of substance use disorder.

   * Personality disorders.

   * Co-morbid medical disorders.

   * Re-enforcing effects of drugs.

   * Withdrawal effects and craving.

   * Biochemical factors.


 * Psychological Factors:


   * Curiosity.

   * Poor impulse control.

   * Low self-esteem.

   * Poor stress management skills.

   * Childhood trauma or loss.

   * Early use of alcohol and tobacco.

   * Escape from reality.

   * Psychological distress.

   * Usage as a relief from fatigue and boredom.

   * Non-conformity.

   * Sensation-seeking.

   * Reaction to neglect.


 * Social Factors:


   * Peer group pressure.

   * Modeling or imitation of behavior of important others.

   * Easy availability of alcohol and drugs.

   * Familial conflicts.

   * Religious reasons.

   * Poor familial support or social support.

   * Unemployment.

   * Rapid urbanization.

   * Permissive social attitudes.

   * Strictness of drug law enforcement.


🍷 Commonly Used Substances & Effects (p. 232-235, 237)


| Substance | Key Characteristics & Effects |

| Alcohol | Causes include genetic and environmental factors. Acute intoxication results in various acts of violence, liver damage, etc. Chronic abuse leads to liver cirrhosis, hepatitis, pancreatitis, delirium tremens, and suicide. |

| Opioids |  ഓപിയോയിഡുകൾ 

that commonly produce dependence. Used for pain relief. Include morphine, heroin, codeine. Acute effects: euphoria, respiratory depression, itching. Chronic effects: skin infections, AIDS, hepatitis, septicemia. |

| Cannabinoids കന്നാബിനോയിഡുകൾ

 (e.g., Cannabis/Marijuana) | Produces mild physical and mental dependence. Effects: tremors, restlessness, insomnia, nervousness, light-headedness, psychoactive disorders (paranoia, psychosis), cancer of respiratory system. |

| Cocaine | 

Can be snorted, smoked, or injected. Potential for acute intoxication: tachycardia, hypertension, seizures, respiratory depression. Chronic use: damage to nasal septum, anxiety, paranoia, social impairment. |

| Amphetamines | ആംഫെറ്റാമൈനുകൾ

Powerful CNS stimulants. Effects: euphoria, hypertension, cardiac failure, convulsions, coma. Chronic use: paranoia, compulsive craving. |

| LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide) |

ലൈസർജിക് ആസിഡ് ഡൈതൈലാമൈഡ്

 Powerful hallucinogen. Known as 'Acid.' Produces tolerance and psychological dependence. Acute effects: paranoia, hallucinations, hypertension, sweating, tremors. |

| Barbiturates | ബാർബിറ്റ്യൂറേറ്റുകൾ


Commonly used as sedatives, hypnotics, tranquilizers, and anticonvulsants. They are commonly abused. |

| Benzodiazepines |ബെൻസോഡിയാസെപൈൻസ്

 Used to treat insomnia and anxiety. Abuse leads to physical and psychological dependence. Acute intoxication may cause respiratory depression, coma, and death. |

| Phencyclidine ഫെൻസിക്ലിഡിൻ

(PCP) | phenylcyclohexylpiperidine

Introduced as an anesthetic agent. Highly intoxicating. Effects: psychological judgement impairment, agitation, impulsiveness, liability to move, and tremors. |

| Inhalants  ഇൻഹാലന്റുകൾ

/Volatile Solvents | Commonly used solvents (petrol, glue, thinner) for intoxication. Effects: euphoria, dizziness, slurring of speech, judgment impairment, coma, respiratory arrest, and death. |

| Other Substances | Caffeine and nicotine are commonly used. |

🛑 Control and Eradication (p. 235-236)

Various methods can be used, including:

 * Primary Prevention:

   * Provision of happy and healthy family life.

   * Establishment of healthy parent-child relationships.

   * Provision of love and care to the children.

   * Open discussion among parents and children.

   * Show interest towards the child's activities.

   * Share the problems of the child and teach him/her how to solve them.

   * Usage of peer pressure.

   * SADD (Students Against Drug Driving) programs to eliminate drinking and driving.

   * Mass media promotion of a healthy lifestyle.

   * Legal reduction of drug availability (prescription, price, sale time).

 * Secondary Prevention:

   * Close monitoring of behavior.

   * Early detection and treatment of addicts.

   * Establishment of de-addiction centres, after care centres, and day care centres.

   * Proper treatment and specific therapies.

 * Tertiary Prevention:

   * Provision of treatment for severe dependence.

   * Provision of rehabilitation measures.

   * Involvement of family in the restorative and rehabilitative activities.

   * Involvement of social agencies for the rehabilitation.



 – SUBSTANCE ABUSE 

1. Introduction

  • Substance abuse = using drugs/substances for pleasure in a way that harms physical, psychological, social or legal well-being.
  • Increasing due to fashion, peer influence, stress, and easy availability.
  • Chronic use leads to addiction → personal disorganization → family problems, poverty, social disorganization.
  • Most common substance abuse in India = Alcohol.

2. Definitions

  • WHO: Drug = any substance that alters one or more functions of a living organism.
  • Substance Abuse: Using a drug against medical or social norms despite harmful effects.

Problems caused:

  • Legal: prohibited, punishable.
  • Social: disruptive behavior, isolation.
  • Medical: physical & mental illness.
  • Individual: poor performance, loss of productivity.

3. Causes of Substance Abuse

A. Biological Causes

  • Family history of addiction
  • Personality disorders
  • Other medical problems
  • Drug reinforcing effects
  • Withdrawal symptoms & cravings
  • Brain biochemical changes

B. Psychological Causes

  • Curiosity
  • Poor impulse control
  • Low self-esteem
  • Stress & poor coping
  • Childhood trauma
  • Escape from reality
  • Boredom
  • Non-conformity
  • Sensation seeking
  • Reaction to neglect

C. Social Causes

  • Peer pressure
  • Imitation of users
  • Easy availability
  • Family conflicts
  • Poor parental support
  • Religious/cultural factors
  • Unemployment
  • Urbanization
  • Permissive society
  • Strict or weak drug law enforcement

4. Commonly Abused Substances

  1. Alcohol
  2. Opioids (morphine, heroin)
  3. Cannabis
  4. Cocaine
  5. Amphetamines
  6. Hallucinogens (LSD)Lysergic acid diethylamide
  7. Sedatives/Hypnotics
  8. Inhalants (glue, petrol, thinners)
  9. Nicotine
  10. Other stimulants

5. Alcohol Abuse

Reasons for teenage drinking

  • Peer pressure
  • Easy access
  • Family issues
  • Escape from stress/emotions

Physical & Psychological Ill-effects

  • Liver diseases (fatty liver, cirrhosis, hepatitis)
  • Gastritis, pancreatitis
  • Malabsorption
  • Delirium tremens
  • Dementia
  • Nerve damage
  • Injuries & accidents
  • Sexual dysfunction
  • Hypoglycemia

Social Effects

  • Accidents
  • Divorce
  • Marital conflicts
  • Criminal behaviour
  • Financial problems
  • Job absenteeism
  • Social disharmony

6. Blood Alcohol Levels (BAC)

  • 25–100 mg%: excitement
  • 80 mg%: legal limit for driving (UK)
  • 100–200 mg%: intoxication, slurred speech
  • 200–300 mg%: dangerous
  • 300–350 mg%: cold sweats, dysarthria
  • 350–400 mg%: coma, respiratory depression
  • >400 mg%: death

7. Other Substance Use & Their Ill Effects

Opioids

  • Morphine, heroin
  • Ill-effects: Parkinsonism, skin infection, AIDS/hepatitis (needle sharing), crime.

Cannabis

  • Mild physical dependence
  • Withdrawal: tremors, irritability
  • Intoxication: tachycardia, confusion
  • Ill-effects: anxiety, psychosis, memory loss, cancer risk.

Cocaine

  • Intoxication: hypertension, nausea, agitation
  • Ill-effects: seizures, delirium, respiratory & cardiac complications.

Amphetamines

  • Used by students & athletes
  • Intoxication: seizures, cardiac shock, aggression
  • Chronic use: strong cravings

LSD

  • Strong hallucinogen
  • Intoxication: hallucinations, sweating, tachycardia
  • Chronic use: anxiety, depression, psychosis

Barbiturates

  • Sedatives, high dependence
  • Intoxication similar to alcohol

Benzodiazepines

  • Used for anxiety
  • Excess leads to respiratory depression, coma
  • Chronic use → memory problems

Inhalants

  • Used by adolescents, low-income groups
  • Effects: dizziness, coma, death
  • Complications: brain, liver, kidney damage

Phencyclidine (PCP)

  • Intoxication: agitation, numbness, impulsive behavior
  • May cause psychiatric symptoms

Nicotine & Caffeine

  • Dependence, withdrawal
  • Long-term: heart & lung diseases

8. Prevention & Control of Substance Abuse

A. Primary Prevention (Before addiction begins)

  • Healthy family environment
  • Good parent–child communication
  • Love, care & monitoring
  • Discuss problems openly
  • Avoid bad peer groups
  • Youth support groups (e.g., SADD)  Students Against Destructive Decisions
  • Awareness campaigns
  • Reduce availability of drugs
  • Strict laws on drug distribution
  • Safe prescribing practices
  • Community programs (youth clubs, teen centers)

B. Secondary Prevention (Early detection & early treatment)

  • Identify early behavior changes
  • Counsel and treat early users
  • Establish de-addiction centers
  • Prevent complications with proper therapy

C. Tertiary Prevention (Rehabilitation of addicts)

  • Treat severe dependence
  • Rehabilitation services
  • Family involvement
  • Support from social agencies
  • Job training & community reintegration

Conclusion

Substance abuse is a major social problem affecting individuals, families, and society. Prevention involves biological, psychological, social, legal, and community-based measures for creating a healthier society.



 – HIV / AIDS

(Simple, structured, easy for revision)

1. Introduction

  • AIDS – Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome
  • Caused by HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus)
  • HIV destroys the immune system, making the body unable to fight infections.
  • It is a fatal, chronic, and socially significant disease.

2. Incidence

  • India ranks second in the world in HIV cases (after South Africa).

India Statistics

Year HIV Positive People
1998 3.5 million
2000 3.9 million

Common Causes (SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION %)

  • Drug use – 5%
  • Contact with infected blood – 4%
  • Parental (mother-to-child) transmission – 2%
  • 75% of cases are males

State-wise Cases

State No. of AIDS Cases
Tamil Nadu 52,036
Andhra Pradesh 12,349
Maharashtra 13,747
Gujarat 5,636
Kerala 1,769
Karnataka 2,896

3. Cause of AIDS (The Virus)


Causes (Short Notes)

AIDS is caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).

  • 1983: French scientists discovered the virus and named it LAV (Lymphadenopathy Associated Virus).
  • 1984: American scientists renamed it HTLV-III (Human T-cell Lymphotropic Virus-III).
  • 1986: The International Committee on Taxonomy officially named it HIV.


  • Caused by HIV
  • Discovered in 1983 (called LAV)
  • Renamed by USA in 1984 as HTLV-III
  • Official name HIV from 1986

4. Predisposing Factors

  • Multiple sex partners
  • Unsafe sexual activities
  • Presence of genital sores / STDs
  • IV drug use (shared needles)
  • High-risk age group: 25–44 years

5. Modes of Transmission (5 Routes)

  1. Sexual contact (vaginal, oral) – major route
  2. Blood and blood products (transfusion)
  3. Contaminated needles / syringes
  4. Transplacental / perinatal (pregnancy, delivery, breastfeeding)
  5. Organ transplantation

6. Problems Faced by HIV-Infected People

A. In Health Care Sector

  • Discrimination by medical staff
  • Isolation of HIV-positive patients
  • Breach of confidentiality
  • Refusal to handle dead bodies
  • Improper use of universal precautions
  • Negative comments and lack of dignity

B. In Employment

  • Denial of jobs
  • Termination from work
  • No promotion
  • Mandatory HIV testing
  • Lack of insurance benefits
  • Refusal of foreign placements
  • No compassionate appointment

C. In Society

  • Social isolation
  • Stigma to whole family
  • Refusal of marriage proposals
  • Denial of education to HIV-positive children
  • Family discrimination (separate utensils, towels)
  • Lack of support system

7. Measures to Overcome Problems

A. Health Care

  • Anti-stigma programmes for staff
  • Include PLWHA in planning campaigns
  • Anti-discrimination laws
  • Training in universal precautions
  • Ensure confidentiality & equal treatment

B. Employment

  • Laws to prevent discrimination
  • Ban mandatory HIV testing for employment
  • Insurance schemes for HIV-positive employees
  • Awareness for employers & workers

C. Women

  • Legal empowerment (property rights, protection from violence)
  • HIV testing for all pregnant women
  • Treatment to prevent mother-to-child transmission
  • Awareness programmes for women
  • Involve men in discussions on gender & HIV

D. Children & Youth

  • Age-appropriate sex education
  • Strong laws against child sexual abuse
  • Access to HIV testing
  • Use mass media for awareness

8. Prevention & Control

A. Education

  • Main method until a vaccine is available
  • Awareness through media
  • Promote safe sex
  • Avoid sharing razors, needles
  • HIV-positive women → avoid pregnancy
  • Educate drug users on needle safety

B. Prevention of Blood-Borne Transmission

  • Mandatory HIV screening of blood donors
  • Safe blood transfusion practices
  • Use disposable needles and syringes
  • Screen organ, sperm, tissue donors

C. Protection for Health Professionals

  • Universal precautions
  • Hand washing, gloves, sterilization
  • Safe handling of sharps
  • Pre- and post-exposure guidelines

9. Education for HIV-Infected People

  • Explain all modes of transmission
  • Teach safe sex, condom use
  • Counsel on family planning
  • Test children of HIV-positive mothers
  • Refer to helplines & AIDS
  •  Action Councils
  • Encourage ART treatment

10. Support Systems

A. Family Support

  • Emotional comfort
  • Safe environment for talking
  • Financial support
  • Nutritious food
  • Prompt treatment for infections
  • Helping patient live positively

B. Community Support

  • Spiritual support (prayers, religious texts)
  • Emotional support
  • Financial help, job opportunities
  • Reduced treatment costs

11. Counselling

  • Given before and after (HIV Human immunodeficiency viruses)  testing
  • Maintain confidentiality
  • Provide emotional support
  • Explain course of illness (long life possible with treatment)
  • Educate on preventing transmission
  • Special counselling for pregnant women
  • Provide information on ART (Anti-retroviral Therapy Centre ) centres & resources

12. National AIDS Control Programme (NACP) – 1987

Main objectives:

  1. Reduce spread of HIV
  2. Build long-term national response capability

Other goals:

  • Maintain HIV prevalence below target levels
  • Reduce blood-borne HIV <1%
  • Achieve 90% awareness
  • 90% condom use among high-risk groups

Key Programme Components

  • Blood safety
  • Condom promotion
  • STD control Sexually Transmitted Diseases
  • HIV testing policy
  • Surveillance
  • IEC & social mobilization
  • IEC stands for Information, Education, and Communication,
  • Family health campaigns
  • Prevention of mother-to-child transmission
  • Post-exposure prophylaxis
  • AIDS helpline

13. International Human Rights Guidelines (Summary)

  • National framework for HIV response
  • Community participation
  • Reform public health laws
  • Reform criminal laws
  • Anti-discrimination laws
  • Regulation of HIV-related goods & services
  • Legal support for PLWHA  People Living with HIV/AIDS
  • Support for women & children
  • Mass education to reduce stigma
  • Codes of conduct for workplaces
  • Monitoring & enforcement
  • International cooperation


 – International Human Rights Guidelines on HIV/AIDS

These guidelines help governments protect the rights of people living with HIV/AIDS and reduce stigma, discrimination, and inequality.

GUIDELINE 1 – National Framework

  • Governments must create a strong national plan for HIV/AIDS.
  • It should be coordinated, transparent, and participatory.
  • All departments of government must work together.

GUIDELINE 2 – Community Participation

  • Communities must be involved in planning, implementing, and evaluating HIV programmes.
  • Governments should give financial and political support to community organisations.

GUIDELINE 3 – Public Health Laws

  • Public health laws must be updated to address HIV issues correctly.
  • Laws meant for casually transmitted diseases should not be misapplied to HIV.
  • Laws must follow international human rights standards.

GUIDELINE 4 – Criminal Laws

  • Criminal laws and correctional systems must be reviewed.
  • They should not be misused to target HIV-positive people or vulnerable groups.
  • Must follow human rights principles.

GUIDELINE 5 – Anti-Discrimination Laws

  • Protect people with HIV/AIDS and vulnerable groups from discrimination.
  • Ensure privacy, confidentiality, and ethical research.
  • Provide quick and effective remedies to victims of discrimination.

GUIDELINE 6 – Regulation of Goods & Services

  • Governments must regulate HIV-related products and services.
  • Ensure safe, effective, and affordable medicines and prevention tools.
  • Provide accurate HIV information widely.

GUIDELINE 7 – Legal Support Services

  • Provide free legal aid to people affected by HIV/AIDS.
  • Educate them about their rights.
  • Use legal protection systems like health complaint units, human rights commissions, etc.

GUIDELINE 8 – Support to Women, Children, Vulnerable Groups

  • Promote a supportive environment for women, children, and other vulnerable groups.
  • Address stigma, inequality, and prejudice through community dialogue.
  • Provide special social and health services.

GUIDELINE 9 – Education to Reduce Stigma

  • Promote continuous education and media programmes.
  • Aim to change negative attitudes and reduce discrimination.
  • Encourage understanding and acceptance of people living with HIV.

GUIDELINE 10 – Codes of Conduct

  • Government and private sectors should create codes of conduct for workplaces and professionals.
  • Translate human rights principles into everyday practice.
  • Ensure mechanisms for enforcement.

GUIDELINE 11 – Monitoring & Enforcement

  • Build systems to monitor human rights violations related to HIV.
  • Protect the rights of people with HIV, their families, and communities.
  • Ensure accountability.

GUIDELINE 12 – International Cooperation

  • Countries should work with the UN and UNAIDS.
  • Share knowledge and experiences.
  • Develop global protection mechanisms for HIV-related human rights.

Summary (for fast revision)

  • Build strong national HIV policy
  • Involve communities
  • Reform public health & criminal laws
  • Protect from discrimination
  • Ensure affordable medicines
  • Provide free legal aid
  • Support vulnerable groups
  • Promote education & media awareness
  • Create workplace codes
  • Monitor rights violations
  • Cooperate internationally





🤝  HIV/AIDS

🦠 Causes, Incidence, and Transmission (p. 236-237)

 * HIV/AIDS is an acronym for Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome, a fatal disease caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).

 * The disease was first observed in the US in 1981 and the virus (initially named LAV) was identified in 1984.

 * India's Statistics (as of 2000): Second largest population of HIV positive people in the world after South Africa (3.9 million cases).

 * Mode of Transmission: HIV is primarily transmitted in five major ways:

   * Sexual contact: High-risk groups include commercial sex workers.

   * Blood and blood products: Transmitted through contaminated blood transfusions or use of contaminated needles/syringes by Intravenous Drug Users (IDUs).

   * Organ transplantation.

   * Parenteral transmission (e.g., sharing injection equipment).

   * Transplacental and peri-natal transmission: From infected mother to fetus or infant.

🚨 Problems Faced by HIV Infected People (p. 238)

HIV-infected people face various problems in the family, community, and society:

 * a. Discrimination in health care: Unwillingness of medical professionals to perform surgery or conduct labour, avoidance of such people, and failure to grant full care.

 * b. Discrimination in employment: Refusal of employment, termination of employment, and denial of promotion or compassionate appointment to the widow/husband of a deceased HIV patient.

 * c. Discrimination in society: Isolation from family and society, avoidance in public meetings, social stigma, refusal of marriage proposals, and denial of rights.

🌟 Measures to Overcome Problems of HIV Positive People (p. 239-240)

1. Health Care Problems:

 * Implement anti-stigma reduction programmes.

 * Include HIV/AIDS in the design of anti-stigma reducing campaigns.

 * Establish multicultural consultative body on HIV/AIDS.

2. Employment Problems:

 * Adoption of national and state anti-discrimination legislation.

 * Mandatory HIV testing, regular health check-ups, and sickness schemes.

 * Train and sensitize both employers and employees.

3. Women in Vulnerable Environments:

 * Adopt legal changes to empower women for equality in areas such as property rights, domestic violence, and marital rape.

 * Provision of an antenatal HIV test for all pregnant women.

4. Prevention and Control of HIV/AIDS (p. 240-241, 248)

 * Awareness and Education: Educate the public, especially youth and children, about safe sexual practices, transmission routes, and avoiding sharing needles.

 * Prevention of Blood Borne HIV Transmission: Screen blood, semen, and organs before donation/transfusion.

 * Preventive Measures for Health Professionals: Training and sensitization for safe handling of sharps and disposal of infected materials.

 * Empowering HIV Positive Women: Provide them with anti-retroviral therapy and counsel them about preventing mother-to-infant transmission.

 * Support System: Family support, emotional support, and community support are vital.

🛡️ National AIDS Control Programme (NACP) (p. 242-243)

 * Established in 1987.

 * Main Objectives:

   * To reduce the spread of HIV infection in India.

   * To strengthen India's capacity to respond to HIV/AIDS on the long-term basis.

 * Other Objectives:

   * Keep HIV prevalence rate below 5% in high-prevalence states.

   * Reduce blood borne transmission of HIV to less than 1%.

 * The Government in April 2002 approved a national AIDS prevention and control policy. Key parts include Blood Safety Programme, Condom promotion, STD Control Programme, and HIV surveillance and awareness campaigns.



: COVID-19 (Unit-6)

(Short, structured, easy to revise)

1. Introduction

  • COVID-19 affected all sections of society, but its impact was heaviest on vulnerable groups—poor people, homeless, older persons, persons with disabilities, migrants, refugees, women and children.
  • The pandemic increased inequality, exclusion, discrimination, unemployment and mental stress.

2. Impact on Vulnerable Groups

A. People Living in Poverty

  • Highly exposed due to inability to “stay at home.”
  • Limited access to water, sanitation, health care.
  • Loss of jobs, income, and mobility.
  • Refugees, migrants, displaced persons faced higher stigma and fewer opportunities.

B. Older Persons

  • Higher risk of infection and severe illness (hypertension, diabetes, heart disease).
  • Social distancing caused loneliness, lack of support.
  • Stereotypes like “COVID is a disease of older people” increased age discrimination.
  • Health services must treat all equally; triage decisions must be ethical, not age-based.

C. Persons with Disabilities

  • Already face barriers in health care → worsened during pandemic.
  • Challenges:
    • Disrupted support services
    • Pre-existing conditions
    • Lack of accessible information
    • Difficulty in personal hygiene, sanitization, and social distancing
    • Living in institutions increased risk
  • Need disability-inclusive health services.

D. Youth

  • Youth were encouraged to participate in awareness and community support.
  • Affected by:
    • Job losses (informal sector, gig jobs)
    • School & college closures (over 1 billion learners)
    • Interruptions in academic progress
  • Long-term impact on education quality and future employment.

E. Indigenous Peoples

  • Higher vulnerability because of:
    • More communicable and non-communicable diseases
    • Lack of access to health care
    • Limited culturally appropriate services
    • Weak local medical facilities
  • Information should be provided in indigenous languages.
  • Many outside social protection → need financial support.

3. Coping with Stress (General Points)

COVID-19 created emotional and psychological stress.

Common Stress Reactions

  • Fear, worry, anger, sadness
  • Sleep problems, nightmares
  • Difficulty concentrating
  • Appetite/energy changes
  • Headache, body pain
  • Worsening mental/physical conditions
  • Increased use of unhealthy coping methods

Healthy Coping

  • Stay connected (phone, online)
  • Follow reliable information
  • Maintain routine, hobbies
  • Seek support when needed
    (No harmful behaviors encouraged—focus on healthy strategies)

4. Social Impact of COVID-19

A. Women and Children

  • Increased gender-based violence, domestic stress.
  • Poor living conditions worsened insecurity and abuse.
  • Women faced difficulties seeking help during lockdowns.
  • Neglect of women’s needs:
    • Menstrual hygiene
    • Nutrition
    • Mental health
  • Unequal household burden increased.
  • Sudden poverty rise affected children’s health, safety, and education.

B. Migrant Workers

  • One of the worst affected groups.
  • Lost jobs, income, housing.
  • Walked long distances to hometowns; many faced accidents and deaths.
  • Highlighted weak social security and poor planning.

C. Social Stress due to Lockdown

  • Travel restrictions
  • Cancelled festivals & gatherings
  • Limited healthcare access (including routine immunization)
  • Closure of schools and colleges
  • Loss of entertainment, social life
  • Overburdened health workers
  • Poor infrastructure exposed long-term weaknesses in health sector

D. Racism and Stigma

  • Caste-based and religious discrimination increased.
  • People from North-East India faced racism.
  • Asians worldwide faced stigma as COVID was wrongly labelled a “Chinese virus”.
  • Shows lack of sensitivity and misinformation.

5. Economic Impact

  • Major decline in economy, income loss, unemployment.
  • Shortage of essential goods: medicines, masks, sanitizers.
  • Millions pushed below poverty line.
  • Long-term threat to social stability if inequality remains unchecked.

6. Way Forward / Policy Response

  • Strengthen public healthcare and infrastructure.
  • Provide social protection systems—benefits, income support, job schemes.
  • Address mental health and social stress.
  • Fight discrimination and ensure inclusion of vulnerable groups.
  • Invest in health workers and primary care.
  • Ensure education continuity through digital and community-based methods.
  • Promote unity, avoid racism, and encourage responsible media reporting.

Short Summary (Exam-Friendly)

  • COVID-19 worsened problems for poor, elderly, persons with disabilities, youth, migrants, and indigenous people.
  • Increased inequality, unemployment, violence, racism, and stress.
  • Need strong social protection, improved healthcare, inclusive policies, and mental health support.
  • Collective action by government, community and international agencies is essential.



🧑‍🦽 Persons with Disabilities (p. 246)

 * Disabled persons often face discrimination in accessing health care, mobility, and resources.

 * They are at higher risk for COVID-19 infection.

 * General measures against COVID-19: Increased home-based care, making health-care more accessible, and targeted services for individuals with disabilities.

🧍 Indigenous Peoples (p. 246)

 * This population is particularly vulnerable due to significant health risks, lack of access to essential services, and being often under-staffed in local medical facilities.

 * Government support is needed to produce, trade, and find employment in urban areas for this group.

🧑 Youth (p. 246)

 * Governments have focused on youth to increase their access to social services, empower them in public health, safety, and the economy.

 * Youth are among the most vulnerable and in need of increasing public health social awareness campaigns.

🦠 Social Impact of COVID-19 (p. 247)

 * The pandemic impacted global sectors, especially the socio-economic status of women and children.

 * Women faced increased burden due to family living in poor social conditions, leading to greater instances of gender-based violence and child abuse.

 * The closure of educational institutions and loss of jobs for many led to disruptions in education and reduced resources for social security.

Stress During COVID-19

Stress in people increased due to:

 * Feelings of fear, anger, sadness, and uncertainty.

 * Changes in appetite, energy, desires, and interests.

 * Difficulty concentrating and making decisions.

 * Difficulty sleeping or nightmares.

 * Physical reactions (headaches, body pains).

 * Worsening of chronic health problems and mental health conditions.

 * Increased use of tobacco, alcohol, and other substances.

👴 Older Persons (p. 245)

 * Older persons are particularly susceptible to the risk of infection from COVID-19 and chronic health conditions.

 * Social distancing can lead to increased social isolation and stress.

 * The discourse around disability, in which it is perceived as a disease or cause of pity, must be changed.

 * International human rights law guarantees everyone the right to the highest attainable standard of health.

🤝 Community Support and Counselling (p. 242)

Community Support

 * Friends, neighbours, voluntary organizations play a vital role in the support network of the affected person and their family members.

 * Spiritual support helps with grief, fear, and emotional stress through prayer, singing, and readings.

 * Emotional support helps the person cope with rejection and the devastation experienced by family members.

Counselling

 * A diagnosis of HIV/AIDS causes great emotional stress. Counselling is essential for the individual to understand the implications of the disease and make informed decisions, including testing and treatment.

 * It provides technical aspects of screening, personal, medical, and psychological implications, as well as emotional support.



  (Pages 248 – 267)

Applied Sociology – Vulnerable Groups, Social Disorganization & Welfare Programs




TEACHING NOTES – UNIT 6

1. VULNERABLE GROUPS – ELDERLY

Who are the Elderly?

  • Vulnerable group in society.
  • Age: 60+ years (India has ~60 million elderly).
  • Mostly live in rural areas.
  • Aging affects physical, psychological and social functioning.

Why Vulnerable?

  • Reduced stress response
  • High risk for illness
  • Physiological decline
  • Cognitive and perceptual decline
  • Losses → loneliness → emotional problems

Categories of Elderly

  1. Young old: 65–75 yrs
  2. Old: 75–85 yrs
  3. Old-old: 85–100 yrs
  4. Elite old: 100+ yrs

Statistics

  • Elderly in world: 416 million
  • By 2020: 11.9% of world population
  • Elderly in India: 7.5%

Problems Faced by the Elderly

a. Retirement

  • Loss of job role, routine, income
  • Creates loneliness, low self-worth
  • Difficulty performing daily activities

b. Economic Problems

  • Limited income or no pension
  • Longer retired years
  • Elderly women face greater poverty
  • Economic dependency → risk of abuse

c. Relocation

  • Need accessible housing
  • Moving to children/nursing homes causes stress

d. Independence & Self-esteem

  • Want to remain independent
  • Need recognition of decision-making ability

e. Fear of Death & Grieving

  • Loss of spouse → loneliness, emptiness
  • Increased reliance on family members

f. Perception & Cognitive Decline

  • Impaired senses
  • Slower learning
  • Memory loss: dementia, amnesia

g. Coping Ability

  • Low adaptability to change
  • Difficulty adjusting to retirement, minor illness

h. Health Problems

  • Common: diabetes, hypertension, stroke, cancer
  • Mental health: depression, dementia
  • Need for geriatric care

i. Social & Psychological Problems

  • Neglect, marginalization
  • Loneliness, worthlessness
  • Can lead to psychological disorders

Developmental Tasks of the Elderly

  • Adjust to declining health
  • Adjust to retirement
  • Accept death of spouse/friends
  • Form new relations with children
  • Use leisure time
  • Adapt to living alone
  • Maintain health
  • Stay socially active
  • Maintain family contact
  • Find meaning in life

Interventions to Overcome Problems

  1. Strengthen family relationships
  2. Provide social support
  3. Involve elders in social programs
  4. Encourage self-help groups
  5. Improve long-term care facilities
  6. Support voluntary health organizations
  7. Ensure financial security
  8. Empower elderly women
  9. Identify abuse early
  10. Use media to prevent abuse
  11. Promote research on aging
  12. Improve quality of life
  13. Provide family warmth and support
  14. Offer pensions, old-age allowance, free medical aid, part-time jobs
  15. Provide counselling
  16. Strengthen welfare services (Govt/NGO)

Elderly Abuse – Definition

Non-accidental act/omission causing physical, psychological, or financial harm to an older person.

Types of Elder Abuse

  1. Neglect & Indifference

    • Ignoring needs, no involvement in decisions

  2. Financial Abuse

    • Forcing elders to give property
    • Making them bear own expenses

  3. Emotional Abuse

    • Misbehavior, hurtful words
    • Feelings of worthlessness, loneliness

  4. Physical Abuse

    • Pushing, beating, rough handling

Solutions for Elder Abuse

  • Provide social support
  • Counselling (family and elders)
  • Awareness programs
  • Set up old-age homes/day-care centers
  • Pre-retirement counselling
  • Help elders access pensions
  • Encourage respectful treatment

2. HANDICAPPED / DISABLED

Definition

A person who deviates from normal physical, mental, or social health and needs special care.

Progression

Disease → Impairment → Disability → Handicap

Incidence

  • 8–9% of population
  • 10% of world population (~400 million)
  • 40 million disabled in developing countries can improve with rehabilitation

Major Types of Handicap

a. Blindness

  • Causes: Vitamin A deficiency, infections, cataract, glaucoma, malnutrition
  • Prevention: early treatment, hygiene, proper diet
  • Rehabilitation: handicrafts, typing, telephone operation

b. Crippled Persons

  • Causes: congenital issues, rickets, polio, paralysis, accidents
  • Polio is major cause (preventable with vaccine)
  • Rehabilitation → training, employment

c. Deafness/Muteness

  • Causes: infections, congenital defects, meningitis
  • Effects: poor communication skills
  • Prevention: early detection/treatment

d. Mentally Handicapped

  • Causes: hereditary, premature birth, brain damage
  • Challenges: lack of treatment facilities, stigma
  • Education of public is essential

e. Leprosy

  • Causes: poor living conditions, malnutrition
  • Prevention: early detection, treatment
  • Social issue: stigma and rejection
  • Rehabilitation should include family

3. MINORITY AND OTHER MARGINAL GROUPS

Definition

A group singled out for unequal or discriminatory treatment due to cultural/physical characteristics.

Criteria (Louis Wirth)

  1. Society labels them based on visible traits
  2. Members develop group identity due to discrimination

Minority ≠ Numerical Minority

Minority means less power, not fewer numbers.

Types of Minority Groups

a. Racial/Ethnic Minorities

  • Migrants, tribal groups, indigenous people
  • Example: Blacks in South Africa under apartheid

b. Gender & Sexual Minorities

  • Women, transgender, intersex, gender-nonconforming groups

c. Age Minorities

  • Elderly and children → face “ageism”

d. Disabled Minorities

  • Disability rights movement treats them as minority
  • Deaf community seen as linguistic/cultural minority

e. Religious Minorities

  • Strong presence worldwide

Indian Religious Minorities

  • Muslims – 11.21% (largest minority)
  • Christians – major group in Kerala (26%)
  • Parsis – 0.1% (urban, economically strong but declining)
  • Sikhs – 1.89% (mostly in Punjab)
  • Anglo-Indians – very small, mixed racial group

Educational Rights of Minorities (Article 30)

  • Right to establish institutions
  • Right to manage and administer
  • Right to choose teachers
  • Right to admit students
  • Right to choose medium of instruction
  • Right to use property for institutional benefit

Linguistic Minorities

  • Defined as group with a distinct language/mother tongue
  • India: 17 major languages, 544 dialects
  • Three types:
    1. Pure linguistic minorities
    2. Tribal linguistic minorities
    3. Religious linguistic minorities
  • Schools started by people from other states = linguistic minority institutions



I. APPLIED SOCIOLOGY: VULNERABLE GROUPS (Pg 248–250)

1. Vulnerable Groups & the Elderly

Impact of COVID-19

  • Global pandemic causing severe disruption in:
    • Health systems
    • Economy
    • Sanitation & essential supplies
  • Highlighted need for:
    • Long-term planning
    • International coordination
    • Preparedness for invisible diseases

Who are Vulnerable Groups?

  • Individuals unable to protect themselves due to age, disability, or dependency.
  • Major vulnerable group: Elderly

Categories of Elderly

Category Age
Young Old 65–75 yrs
Old 75–85 yrs
Old-Old 85–100 yrs
Elite Old 100+ yrs

2. Problems Faced by the Elderly (Pg 249)

Physical Problems

  • Wrinkled skin, grey hair, worn teeth
  • Decreased vision & hearing
  • Decline in mobility

Major Social & Psychological Problems

a) Retirement

  • Loss of income
  • Loneliness, depression
  • Reduced activity

b) Economic Dependency

  • Low pension
  • No savings
  • Dependence on family

c) Relocation

  • Moving due to health, loss of spouse
  • Stressful transition

d) Loss of Independence

  • Desire to remain independent
  • Struggle to maintain self-esteem

e) Fear of Death & Grief

  • Loss of spouse/friends
  • Emotional loneliness

3. Elderly Health & Interventions (Pg 250)

Health and Perceptual Problems

  • Poor long-term memory → amnesia, dementia
  • Low coping ability
  • Common illnesses: Arthritis, Cancer, Depression, Dementia, Heart disease

Social & Psychological Problems

  • Loneliness
  • Neglect
  • Low worth and self-esteem

Tasks Elderly Must Adjust To

  • Reduced physical strength
  • Retirement
  • Death of spouse/friends
  • More leisure time
  • Loneliness

Interventions

  • Strengthen family relationships
  • Provide social and community support
  • Encourage participation in social programs
  • Self-help group activities
  • Promote long-term care services
  • Voluntary health organizations for emotional support

II. ELDERLY ABUSE (Pg 251–252)

1. Elderly Abuse – Meaning

  • Any action causing physical, emotional, or financial harm to an older person.

2. Types of Elder Abuse

a) Neglect & Indifference

  • Ignoring basic needs
  • Excluding elders from decisions
  • Lack of time or attention

b) Financial Abuse

  • Misusing elders’ assets or income
  • Family dependency leading to exploitation

c) Emotional Abuse

  • Ridiculing, insulting, yelling
  • Causes loneliness, self-doubt

d) Physical Abuse

  • Hitting, pushing, rough handling
  • Forcing elders to do heavy work

3. Solutions

  • Strengthen social support
  • Encourage reporting of abuse
  • Counselling for family & elders
  • Social workers must reach out
  • Promote active & graceful aging programs

III. DISABLED/HANDICAPPED (Pg 252–254)

1. Definition

  • Person deviating from normal health physically, mentally, or socially
  • Needs special care, treatment, education

Stages of Handicap

  1. Disease/Disorder
  2. Impairment
  3. Disability
  4. Handicap

Incidence

  • ~400 million disabled globally
  • 10% of world population
  • 1/3 live in developing countries

2. Types of Handicaps (Pg 253–254)

a) Blindness

  • Causes:
    • Vitamin A deficiency
    • Cataract, glaucoma
    • Eye infections
  • Rehabilitation: weaving, handicrafts, spinning

b) Crippled Persons

  • Causes:
    • Congenital defects
    • Polio, paralysis
    • Rickets
  • Rehabilitation through industrial training

c) Deafness/Muteness

  • Causes:
    • Otitis media
    • Congenital defects
    • Meningitis
  • Importance of early detection & communication training

d) Mental Handicap

  • Causes:
    • Hereditary
    • Birth defects
    • Brain disorders
  • Lack of adequate treatment facilities

e) Leprosy

  • Causes:
    • Poor hygiene
    • Overcrowding
    • Malnutrition
  • Treatment available in most hospitals

IV. MINORITY GROUPS (Pg 255–257)

1. Definition

Louis Wirth:
A group singled out for unequal treatment due to physical/cultural differences.

Criteria

  • Based on group status
  • Based on individual characteristics

2. Types of Minority Groups

a) Racial/Ethnic minorities
b) Gender & Sexual minorities
c) Age minorities
d) Disabled minorities
e) Religious minorities

3. Indian Religious Minorities (Pg 256)

Group Notes
Muslims Largest minority; UP, West Bengal
Christians Kerala, Goa; missionary & educational role
Parsis Smallest group; Mumbai; high achievements
Sikhs Punjab; hardworking & reformist
Anglo-Indians Very small; face linguistic/religious bias

Rights of Minorities

  • Establish & manage educational institutions
  • Select teachers
  • Cultural, linguistic, religious freedom (Article 27, Convention)

4. Linguistic Minority (Pg 257)

  • Groups with their own distinct language
  • Types: Linguistic, tribal-linguistic, religious-linguistic groups

Here is a simple, clear, exam-friendly Teaching Note on Role of Nurse in Reducing Social Problems and Enhancing Coping.

TEACHING NOTE

Role of Nurse in Reducing Social Problems & Enhancing Coping

1. Introduction

Nurses work closely with individuals, families, and communities. They observe health trends, social issues, and cultural practices. Therefore, nurses play a vital role in identifying social problems, preventing them, and helping people cope effectively.

2. Objectives of the Lesson

  • To understand the role of nurses in addressing social problems.
  • To identify actions nurses should take to enhance coping.
  • To prepare nurses to participate in community development and social change.

3. Importance of Nurse’s Role

  • Nurses interact directly with the public → best position to identify social issues.
  • They guide people in coping with illness, stress, and social problems.
  • They help connect people with health services and government support.

4. Role of Nurse in Reducing Social Problems

A. Professional Awareness

  1. Stay updated on current social issues.
  2. Do not restrict themselves to hospitals; observe community problems.

B. Academic & Sociological Skills

  1. Apply sociological principles when working with patients/public.
  2. Use opportunities to work in community, industries, schools etc.
  3. Learn sociology not only for exams, but for real-life problem solving.
  4. Encourage higher studies in sociology for nurses.
  5. Attend in-service training on sociological issues.

C. Cultural & Social Assessment

  1. Understand cultural patterns of each patient.
  2. Identify socio-cultural factors linked to illness.

D. Community & Government Collaboration

  1. Community health nurses must communicate local health needs to authorities.
  2. Participate in political processes to highlight public health issues.
  3. Nurses should be included in government panels on public issues.

E. Rehabilitation & Special Services

  1. Work effectively in rehabilitation of HIV/AIDS and substance abuse cases.

F. Government Implementation

  1. Government can implement social issue remedies through nurses.
  2. Show readiness to work in problematic areas of society.

G. Reporting & Prevention of Social Evils

  1. Report child labour, child abuse, trafficking, etc.
  2. Bring practices like child marriage and dowry to public attention.

H. Work with Voluntary Agencies

  1. Collaborate with NGOs to reduce poverty, illiteracy, crime.

I. Awareness & Counselling

  1. Conduct awareness programs on social evils and their impact.
  2. Provide counselling to victims of social problems.
  3. Promote social values among the public.

J. Attitude Change

  1. Help remove superstitious beliefs and prejudices.
  2. Educate about rights of women, children, and minority groups.

K. Special Training

  1. Get trained to work with elderly, disabled, and marginal groups.
  2. Participate in field visits to understand real community problems.

5. Overall Role

  1. Work towards improving socio-economic status of the community — a major step in solving many social problems.

6. Conclusion

Nurses are not only caregivers but also social reformers, counsellors, educators, and community leaders. With proper knowledge and participation, they can greatly reduce social problems and promote a healthier, more resilient society.


Role of Nurse

  • Use sociological principles
  • Maintain good relationships with patients
  • Participate in public health campaigns
  • Work in rehabilitation, AIDS units, substance abuse programs

V. WELFARE PROGRAMS (Pg 258–267)

1. Social Welfare Programs (Pg 258–259)

  • Started during India’s First Five-Year Plan
  • Department of Social Welfare (1964)

Child Welfare

  • 40% of India’s population = children
  • Prone to malnutrition, disease, exploitation

Constitutional Protection

  • Art 24: No child under 14 to work in factories
  • Art 45: Free & compulsory education

ICDS Scheme

  • For children < 6 years & pregnant/lactating mothers

– SOCIAL WELFARE PROGRAMS (CHILD WELFARE)

1. Introduction

  • Social welfare programmes in India started during the 1st Five-Year Plan.
  • Funds increased across plans (7th Plan: ₹799.97 crore).
  • Department of Social Welfare (1964) became an independent ministry.
  • Central Social Welfare Board (1953) created to fund and support voluntary organizations.
  • Focus on vulnerable groups → Children, Women, Disabled, Elderly, SC/ST.

2. CHILD WELFARE

  • Children = 40% of India’s population.
  • High IMR, malnutrition, anemia, communicable diseases.
  • Problems: child labour, trafficking, exploitation, discrimination (especially girls).

A. Constitutional Provisions for Children

Article Provision
Article 24 No child <14 yrs in hazardous work.
Article 45 Free & compulsory education up to 14 yrs.
Article 39 Protection from exploitation & ensure healthy development.

B. Laws for Child Protection

  • Minimum age laws for employment.
  • Hindu Adoption & Maintenance Act (1956)
  • Women & Children’s Institutions Act (1960)
  • Factories Act (1948)
  • Plantation Labour Act (1951)
  • Mines Act (1952)
  • Shops & Establishment Acts
  • Juvenile Justice Act (1986) – protection, rehabilitation.
  • State Children Acts.

3. National Policy for Children (1974) – Objectives

  • Improve nutrition & health of children (0–6 yrs).
  • Reduce mortality, morbidity, malnutrition, school dropouts.
  • Ensure child development (physical, social, psychological).
  • Coordinate work of various departments.
  • Educate mothers on nutrition & health.

4. Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS)

  • Launched: 1975
  • Beneficiaries:
    • Children <6 yrs
    • Pregnant women
    • Lactating mothers
    • Women 15–44 yrs from poor families

ICDS Services Package

  1. Supplementary Nutrition
  2. Immunization
  3. Health Check-up
  4. Referral Services
  5. Non-formal preschool education
  6. Health & Nutrition Education

Anganwadi System

  • Anganwadi = functional unit
  • Coverage: 1000 population (urban/rural), 700 (tribal)
  • Staff:
    • AWW (Anganwadi Worker)
    • Helper
    • Supervisor / Mukya Sevika
    • CDPO at block/taluk level
  • 100–150 anganwadis per project
  • Provides nutrition, preschool learning, health services.

5. Other Child Welfare Programs

  • Crèches/day-care for working mothers
  • Early childhood education centres
  • Mid-day meal programme
  • National awards for child welfare
  • Public awareness activities
  • Children’s parks, films, Bal Bhavan, Children’s Book Trust
  • Cultural and recreational programmes
  • Support for institutions working for women/children
  • Children Acts to prevent juvenile crimes

6. National Agencies

Indian Council for Child Welfare

  • Plans & monitors child welfare programmes.

National Institute of Cooperation and Child Development (1975)

Functions:

  • Research & evaluation
  • Training of personnel
  • Technical guidance & consultancy
  • Coordination with national/international bodies

7. Limitations / Problems

  • Limited coverage
  • Lack of funds
  • Shortage of trained personnel
  • Weak implementation
  • Need for stronger legislation & monitoring

8. Conclusion

Children are precious national resources.
Protecting childhood ensures a healthy society.
Effective laws, welfare programmes, community participation and strong monitoring can improve child welfare in India.



2. Women Welfare & Social Legislation (Pg 260–261)

.

TEACHING NOTES – WOMEN WELFARE

1. Introduction

  • Women are considered a vulnerable group; therefore, women welfare is essential.
  • Department of Women & Child Development (1985) created to formulate and implement welfare policies.

2. Major Programmes for Women Welfare

A. Social Legislation

  • Constitution ensures equal rights for men & women.
  • Women have:
    • Right to vote & contest elections.
    • Reservation in Panchayat Raj (30%) – 72nd & 73rd Amendments.
  • Important Acts:
    • Hindu Marriage & Divorce Act (1955) – divorce legally accepted.
    • Hindu Succession Act (1956) – daughter gets equal share in property.
    • Hindu Guardianship Act (1956) – rights in guardianship and adoption.
    • Child Marriage Restraint Act (1978) – marriage age: Girls 18, Boys 21.
    • Maternity Benefits Act (1961; amended 1976).
    • Equal Remuneration Act (1976) – equal wages for men & women.

B. Educational Programmes

  • Aim: Improve women’s literacy & fight lack of education.
  • Measures:
    • Financial help to backward states to open girls’ schools/colleges.
    • Incentives: free clothing, free tuition, scholarships (SC/ST included).
    • Hostels for girls.
    • Adult education programmes: literacy, health, nutrition, child care, family planning.
    • Functional Literacy for Women – vocational + basic education.
    • Awareness Generation Programme (1987–88) for social awareness.

C. Employment & Income Programmes

  • Goal: Improve status of women through employment.
  • Women Polytechnic Institutions expanded.
  • Employment & Income Generating Programme (1982–83) for weaker sections.
  • Support for women in distress (1977) – widows, unmarried mothers, kidnapped victims.
  • STEP Programme (Seventh Five-Year Plan):
    • Support women’s employment in agriculture, sericulture, animal husbandry, fisheries, handloom, khadi, etc.
  • Women Development Corporations:
    • Identify job opportunities.
    • Provide raw materials, training, marketing support.
    • Loans with subsidized interest for women entrepreneurs.

D. Hostels for Working Women

  • Central Scheme (1972) – safe accommodation + healthy environment.
  • Expanded in 1982 to include day-care centres for children.
  • Short stay homes for women facing family problems, exploitation, or distress.
  • Facilities: medical care, counselling, occupational therapy, education, recreation.

E. Mahila Mandals

  • Started under Welfare Extension Project (1954).
  • Handed to Mahila Mandals (1961).
  • Provide:
    • Maternity & child services
    • Balwadi services
    • Literacy and social education
    • Recreation for women

F. Family Life Institute (Delhi)

  • Run by the Association for Social Health in India.
  • Services:
    • Counselling for couples, parents, teenagers.
    • Family life education.
    • Guidance for youth with emotional/adjustment issues.

3. Committees & Commissions for Women

  • To study problems and suggest solutions:
    1. National Committee on the Status of Women (1974)
    2. National Expert Committee on Women Prisoners (1986)
    3. National Committee on Women (1980)
    4. National Commission on Self-Employed Women & Women in Informal Sector (1987)

4. Voluntary Organizations Working for Women Welfare

  1. Women’s Action for Development
  2. Indian Red Cross
  3. Rotary Club & Lions Club
  4. Indian Prostitutes Welfare Society
  5. Family Planning Association of India
  6. Indian Council for Women Welfare
  7. Indian Council of Social Welfare
  8. National Federation of Indian Women
  9. Human Rights Organizations
  10. Mahila Mandals
  11. Kasturba Gandhi Trust
  12. Kamla Nehru Women’s Conference
  13. Indira Gandhi Trust
  14. All India Women’s Conference
  15. Bharatiya Grameen Mahila Sangh
  16. Association for Social Health in India
  17. Young Women Christian Association (YWCA)
  18. Bharat Sevak Sangh
  19. Religious bodies: Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission



Important Acts

  • Hindu Marriage Act (1955) – Divorce rights
  • Hindu Succession Act (1956) – Equal property rights
  • Hindu Guardianship Act (1956) – Custody rights
  • Dowry Prohibition Act (1961)

Employment & Income Programs

  • Vocational training
  • Women’s Development Corporation

3. Working Women & Mahila Mandals (Pg 262)

Hostels for Working Women

  • Safe accommodation
  • Run by government and NGOs

Mahila Mandals

  • Started 1954
  • Provide:
    • Literacy programs
    • Health education
    • Balwadi services

Family Life Institute

  • Focus: Family life, marriage, child care

4. Welfare of the Old & NGOs (Pg 262–263)



TEACHING NOTE – WELFARE OF OLD PEOPLE

1. Introduction

  • Around 60 million elderly live in Indian villages.
  • Traditionally, elders received respect, but due to westernization, urbanization, and breakdown of joint families, many elderly feel neglected.
  • Adjustment problems between younger and older generations create a need for welfare measures.

2. Government Welfare Measures

A. Old Age Pension

  • Provides financial security.
  • Central & State Governments offer monthly pension to eligible elderly.

B. Free Medical Care

  • Free/low-cost treatment in government hospitals.
  • Special facilities for major diseases (heart, cancer, etc.).

C. Housing Facilities

  • Old Age Homes established for accommodation and care.

D. Recreational Facilities

  • Community centers, day-care centers, cultural and social activities.

E. Usual Courtesy Measures

  • Priority services, concessions, respectful treatment.

F. Retirement Benefits

  • Government employees retire at 55–58 years.
    Benefits include:
    ✔ Pension
    ✔ Provident Fund (PF) lump sum
    ✔ Encashment of earned leave
    ✔ Fixed medical allowance
    ✔ Reimbursement for hospitalization

Department of Pension & Pensioners Welfare

  • Handles pensioner issues.
  • Formulates retirement benefit policies for central government employees.

3. Voluntary Organizations for Elderly Care

A. Help-Age India (1978)

  • Nationwide organization for elderly welfare.
  • Headquarters: New Delhi (22 centers).

Functions

  • Create awareness about elder rights.
  • Organize painting competitions, debates, grandparents’ meets.
  • Provide:
    • Old age homes
    • Day care centers
    • Geriatric wards
    • Mobile Medicare units
    • Rehabilitation of blind aged, handicapped, leprosy patients
    • Cataract operations
  • Training for caregivers.
  • “Adopt a Granny” scheme — doorstep rehabilitation for elders below poverty line.
  • Greeting card program to raise funds.
  • Research and training center established in 1990.

B. Age-Care India (ACT) – 1980

Objectives

  1. Provide care through domiciliary (home), residential, institutional services.
  2. Offer educational, cultural, recreational and spiritual services.
  3. Organize medical care, part-time employment, tours & pilgrimages.
  4. Provide consultancy on pensions, taxes, property, financial matters.
  5. Conduct research, seminars, workshops related to age issues.
  6. Promote better understanding between young and old generations.

Membership

  • Open to all physically fit persons above 21 years.
  • Types:
    • Founder
    • Life
    • Associate
    • Temporary
  • Over 1300 members.
  • Publishes “Age-Care News” monthly.

Services

  • Mobile geriatric health camps by doctors and volunteers.
  • Five day-care centers with:
    • Health care
    • Counseling
    • Reading rooms/libraries
    • Cultural and social activities
  • Provides small old-age pension (Rs. 50 per month) to poor rural elderly.
  • Celebrates Elder’s Day – 18th November to honor senior citizens.

4. Key Teaching Points / Summary

  • Elderly population needs support due to changing family systems.
  • Welfare measures include pension, medical care, housing, recreation and retirement benefits.
  • Help-Age India and Age-Care India are major voluntary agencies providing comprehensive services.
  • Aim is to ensure dignity, health, social integration, and improved quality of life for older people.


Government Support

  • Pensions
  • Medical care
  • Housing
  • Recreation

Voluntary Organizations

  • Age-Help-India (1978)
  • Help-Age India (1980)

5. Welfare of the Disabled (Pg 264–265)


TEACHING NOTE: WELFARE OF THE DISABLED

1. Meaning

A disabled person is someone who experiences limitations in normal daily life due to impairment by birth, accident, or disease. Around 10% of the world’s population has some form of disability. Welfare programmes aim to support them to become independent, self-reliant, and socially included.

2. Major Welfare Measures in India

A. National Institutes for the Disabled

(Under Ministry of Welfare)

  1. National Institute for the Visually Handicapped – Dehradun
    Training, research, educational aids for blind.

  2. National Institute for Orthopaedically Handicapped – Kolkata
    Services for mobility and locomotor disability.

  3. National Institute for Mentally Handicapped – Secunderabad
    Training and special education for intellectual disabilities.

  4. Ali Yavar Jung National Institute for Hearing Handicapped – Mumbai
    Training, research, and communication aids for hearing impairment.

Functions:
• Professional training
• Developing teaching/learning materials
• Research in rehabilitation
• Model service delivery programmes

B. Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI)

• Sets syllabus for rehabilitation courses
• Approves training institutes
• Maintains Central Rehabilitation Register
• Ensures quality education for rehabilitation professionals

C. Training by Voluntary Organizations

Examples:
• Spastic Society of India
• Society for Remedial Education, Kolkata
• Manovikas Kendra, Lucknow
Provide training for teachers/resource persons in areas such as cerebral palsy, learning disabilities, deaf education, counseling.

D. District Rehabilitation Centres (DRCs)

(Started in 1983)

Provide medical, educational, vocational training, and job placement for disabled persons in cooperation with NGOs.

E. Artificial Limb Manufacturing Corporation (ALIMCO) – Kanpur

• Produces high-quality artificial limbs and appliances
• Supplies aids at subsidized rates

3. Employment & Training Facilities

Government and NGOs provide:

• Vocational training centres
• Skill development
• Reservation in jobs
• Loan support for self-employment

4. Other Welfare Facilities

Financial & Employment Support

  • Bank loans at concessional interest
  • 3% reservation in Group C & D posts
  • Subsidy for prosthetics
  • Priority in government housing

Education Support

  • Scholarships for disabled students
  • Braille libraries
  • Homes for mentally retarded and blind children
  • Braille wristwatches (HMT)
  • Hindustan Machine Tools. 

Travel & Mobility Support

  • Concession in bus, train, and air travel
  • Petrol subsidy for personal vehicle
  • Reservation in petrol pumps, gas agencies, STD/ISD booths

Recreational & Social Support

  • Sports competitions for disabled persons
  • Awards to social workers on World Disabled Day

5. Conclusion

India has introduced multiple programmes for disabled welfare, but implementation gaps remain. Strengthening rehabilitation services, improving accessibility, and ensuring proper monitoring can help achieve the goal of full inclusion and independence for the disabled.




National Institutes

  • For visually handicapped
  • Orthopaedically handicapped
  • Mentally handicapped
  • Hearing handicapped

Rehabilitation Council of India

  • Regulates training
  • Maintains professional registers

Facilities

  • Artificial limbs (Kanpur)
  • Loans & subsidies
  • Employment reservations

6. Welfare of Drug Addicts (Pg 266–267)



 WELFARE OF DRUG ADDICTS

1. Introduction

  • Drug addiction is a major social problem.
  • Mostly affects children and youth (16–35 years).
  • Causes: curiosity, peer pressure, experimentation, family issues, personal stress.
  • Sources of drugs: panwalas, shopkeepers, peddlers, drug traffickers.
  • Drug trafficking linked with underworld mafias.

2. Government Ministries Involved

  1. Ministry of Finance
    • Enforces Narcotic Drugs & Psychotropic Substances Act (NDPS Act 1985).
  2. Ministry of Health & Family Welfare
    • Treatment and rehabilitation of drug addicts.
  3. Ministry of Information & Broadcasting
    • Publicity and awareness.
  4. Ministry of Welfare
    • Education, prevention, identification, treatment, de-addiction programmes.

3. Welfare Programmes for Drug Addicts

A. Prevention & Awareness

  • Awareness about harmful effects through:
    • TV, Radio, Films, Posters.
    • Street plays, debates, competitions, exhibitions.
  • Voluntary organizations conduct:
    • House-to-house visits.
    • Public meetings.
    • Community awareness campaigns.
  • Parents and teachers are educated for early detection.

B. Counseling & Treatment Services

  • About 30 counseling centres established (e.g., Delhi, 1997–98).
  • Services provided:
    • Counseling for addicts & families
    • Motivation for de-addiction
    • Detoxification support
    • Follow-up care to maintain drug-free life

C. Rehabilitation

  • Aim: Help addicts rebuild their life.
  • Programmes include:
    • Skill training.
    • Vocational education.
    • Support for employment.
    • Family support programmes.
    • Community-based rehabilitation.

4. Role of Voluntary Organizations

  • 74 voluntary agencies supported by central schemes.
  • Provide:
    • Counseling centres.
    • De-addiction camps.
    • Awareness programs.
    • Community outreach.
  • Encourage addicts to accept treatment.
  • Help maintain a drug-free lifestyle with family cooperation.

5. Enforcement Agencies

  • State Police
  • Narcotics Control Bureau
  • Narcotic Commissioner of India
  • Directorate of Revenue Intelligence
  • Central Police Organisations
  • Customs & Excise Departments

These agencies enforce laws to control production, sale, transport, and misuse.

6. Laws for Drug Control

A. NDPS Act, 1985

The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act,
  • Strictest law on drug abuse.
  • Covers:
    • Production
    • Manufacture
    • Possession
    • Sale
    • Purchase
    • Transport
    • Consumption
  • Punishment:
    • Minimum 10 years imprisonment
    • Fine not less than ₹1 lakh

B. Prevention of Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs & Psychotropic Substances Act, 1988

  • Deals with drug trafficking networks.
  • Allows detention for more than 3 months.
  • Detention period may extend to:
    • 1 year or 2 years in vulnerable border regions.
  • Areas include:
    • Indo-Pak, Indo-Nepal, Indo-Burma, Indo-Bangladesh, Indo-Bhutan borders.

C. National Fund for Control of Drug Abuse (1989)

  • Supports programmes for:
    • Prevention
    • Rehabilitation
    • Control of drug trafficking.

7. Administrative Measures

  • Creation of narcotic cells in state police and customs.
  • Award schemes for officers and informers.
  • Strengthening check posts.
  • Close coordination with:
    • International Narcotics Control Board
    • Interpol

8. Conclusion

  • Drug addiction is a global issue.
  • Requires coordinated action: government + community + voluntary organizations.
  • Focus must remain on prevention, treatment, rehabilitation, and strict law enforcement.

!


Causes

  • Peer pressure
  • Family issues
  • Curiosity/experimentation

Programs

  • Awareness education
  • Treatment & rehabilitation centers
  • Voluntary organizations counselling addicts

Strict Legislation

NDPS Act (1985)

  • Minimum 10 years imprisonment
  • Heavy fines

Enforcement

  • Narcotic cells
  • Checking ports
  • International coordination (INCB)


 Pages 248–267 (Applied Sociology, 

1-Page Summary (Pages 248–267)

Applied Sociology – Vulnerable Groups

Elderly: COVID-19 exposed vulnerabilities in health, economy, and support systems. Elderly (60+ yrs) face physical decline, psychological stress, financial dependency, relocation stress, low self-esteem, fear of death, and coping difficulties.
Tasks: Adjust to reduced strength, retirement, loss of spouse/friends, and loneliness.
Interventions: Strengthen family bonds, increase social support, promote self-help groups, involve elders in social programs, and expand geriatric care.

Elderly Abuse

Elder abuse includes neglect, financial misuse, emotional insults, and physical harm.
Solutions: Provide social support, encourage reporting, involve caregivers/social workers, offer counseling, and promote healthy aging awareness.

Disability / Handicapped

Definition: Deviation from normal physical/mental/social health that requires special care.
Stages: Disease → Impairment → Disability → Handicap.
Major Forms:

  • Blindness (largest in India)
  • Crippling conditions (polio, paralysis, arthritis)
  • Deafness/muteness (due to infections, congenital issues)
  • Mental handicap (hereditary or birth-related)
  • Leprosy (due to poor living conditions)
    Rehabilitation: Industrial training, handicrafts, medical treatment, early detection.

Minority Groups

Definition (Wirth): Groups singled out for unequal treatment due to physical/cultural traits.
Types: Racial/ethnic, gender & sexual minorities, age minorities, disabled groups, and religious minorities.
Indian Religious Minorities: Muslims, Christians, Parsis, Sikhs, Anglo-Indians.
Rights: Maintain their institutions, choose teachers, reserve admissions, preserve language, culture, and religion.
Role of Nurse: Understand social issues, maintain good patient relations, participate in community programs, and assist in rehabilitation and public health efforts.

Social Welfare Programs

Child Welfare: Constitutional protections (Articles 24, 45), laws against child marriage, hazardous child labour, and the ICDS program for children under 6 and mothers.

Women Welfare: Focus on raising status and providing opportunities.
Key Acts: Hindu Marriage Act (1955), Succession Act (1956), Guardianship Act (1956), Dowry Prohibition Act (1961).
Includes vocational training, employment schemes, hostels for working women, Mahila Mandals, and Family Life Institutes.

Welfare of the Elderly

Due to changes in family structure, elders need pensions, medical aid, housing, and recreation. Voluntary organizations like HelpAge India support awareness and care.

Welfare of the Disabled

National Institutes for:

  • Visual handicap (Dehradun)
  • Orthopaedic handicap (Kolkata)
  • Mental handicap (Secunderabad)
  • Hearing handicap (Mumbai)

Rehabilitation Council regulates training. Artificial Limb Manufacturing Corporation (Kanpur) produces aids. Facilities include loans, travel concessions, and employment support.

Welfare of Drug Addicts

Drug abuse arises from peer pressure and family issues.
Programs: Awareness, counseling, rehabilitation centers.
Enforcement: NDPS Act (1985), narcotic cells, strict control at ports, cooperation with international agencies.


 Revision Chart for Pages 248–267.

REVISION CHART 

Key Points
Age Groups Young Old (65–75), Old (75–85), Old Old (85–100), Elite Old (100+)
Major Problems Retirement stress, economic dependency, relocation, loss of self-esteem, fear of death, health issues (dementia, arthritis, cardiac), social isolation
Interventions Strengthen family ties, involve elders in social programs, self-help groups, long-term care, geriatric services, voluntary health organizations

2. Elderly Abuse

Type Examples
Neglect Ignoring, excluding from decisions, poor care
Financial Abuse Misuse of income/property
Emotional Abuse Insults, ridicule, isolation
Physical Abuse Hitting, pushing, rough handling
Solutions Social support, reporting abuse, caregiver involvement, counseling, awareness programs

3. Disability / Handicapped

Aspect Points
Definition Deviation from normal physical/mental/social health
Stages Disease → Impairment → Disability → Handicap
Types Blindness, crippling conditions, deaf/mute, mental handicap, leprosy
Rehab Training (weaving, handicrafts), early detection, medical care

4. Minority Groups

Type Examples / Notes
Definition Group facing unequal treatment (Louis Wirth)
Types Racial, Gender/Sexual, Age, Disabled, Religious
Indian Minorities Muslims (largest), Christians, Parsis, Sikhs, Anglo-Indians
Rights Manage institutions, choose teachers, reserve seats, preserve culture/language/religion
Role of Nurse Apply sociology, community involvement, rehabilitation, public health participation

5. Child Welfare

Component Key Points
Constitutional Art. 24 – No child labor; Art. 45 – Free & compulsory education
Acts Child Marriage Restraint Act, Factory/Shop acts
ICDS Services to children <6 yrs & mothers (urban/rural/tribal areas)

6. Women Welfare

Area Key Acts / Programs
Legal Protection Hindu Marriage Act (1955), Succession Act (1956), Guardianship Act (1956), Dowry Prohibition Act (1961)
Programs Vocational training, Women’s Development Corporation, Hostels for working women, Mahila Mandals, Family Life Institute

7. Welfare of the Elderly

Support Details
Government Old age pension, free medical care, housing, recreation
Voluntary Orgs HelpAge India, Age-Help-India

8. Welfare of Disabled

Institution Location
NI for Visually Handicapped Dehradun
NI for Orthopaedically Handicapped Kolkata
NI for Mentally Handicapped Secunderabad
NI for Hearing Handicapped Mumbai
Others RCI for training regulation; Artificial Limb Corp., Kanpur; loans, concessions, self-employment

9. Drug Addiction Welfare

Area Key Points
Causes Peer pressure, experimentation, family issues
Programs Awareness, counseling centers, rehab
Law NDPS Act (1985) – strict punishment
Administration Narcotic cells, port checks, international cooperation


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